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The  Child  and  Nature 


Geography  Teaching  with  Sand  [Modelling 


14Y 


ALEX.    E.    FRYE 


KOKMERLY    rKINCIl'AI.   Ol'    Tlii;   c.UlNc  V    SCIlOfU,    OUIN'CV,    MASS..   AND 

TRAINING    Ti;ACili;i;    l.\     I'lIK    CiiDK    COUNTY    (ILL.) 

NORMAL    .sClIO<)L 


AA\ERICAN    PHDACICIGICAL   SliRIliS 
VOLUME   I. 


T,OST(~)X.    r.S.A.: 
CIW    .V    COMTAW.     ri  lil.ISIlI'.k.S. 


aL\)t  errors  of  tfjc  past  are  Hjc  inistiam  of  tl)C  present. 


CoPVItKillT,    1S8S, 

By  .ALEX.  E.  F1?YE. 
jil<  rigntu  roit-rned. 


PREFACE. 


CJi.fMiKAi'iiv  s[);uis  fi  lifeliuic  :  I)Ut  as  a  (.•omiiioii-scliool 
stiuly.  it  consists  of  a  natural  seiiuence  of  suhjocts  lu-giniiiiig 
in  the  primary  izrailes  and  unfolding-  aloiiii'  the  entire  eonrs(>. 
Kvery  I>ranch  in  the  advanced  work  s[)riniis  from  a  root  in 
the  elementary,  and  it  is  this  unity  of  urowtli  which  aU^ne 
merits  the  name  of  science. 

The  sci'ics  of  relations  which  linl<  man  to  tli(>  mother 
earth  can  lie  properly  traced  only  l>y  considerinu'  the  land 
masses,  not  as  mere  areas,  hut  as  solid  foi'iirs.  i)ossessin;j; 
jiol  only  leuLith  and  hreadth.  hut  also  the  \-ery  im[)ortant 
dimension  of  Ji(iij]if.  Hy  this  term  is  meant,  not  the  nici'e 
location  of  plateaus  ;uid  mountain  I'anucs.  Imt  the  varyinu' 
elevation  of  the  whole  land  surface  ahove  the  st'adevel, 
resuhinii;  in  coiitineiilal  slopes.  I.s  it  not  tiie  thi'cefold 
exteirsion.  or  I'ather  the  I'cl.ation  of  ele\ation  to  area,  which 
conditions  the  disti-ihntion  of  life?  and  is  it  not  the  dimen- 
sion of  heiiiht  alone,  which  divides  the  sui'faee  into  the  great 
slopes  that  form  the  river-hasins.  determine  i-ninfall  and 
drainaufc.  disti'ilmte  soil  as  Unn\  for  plants,  and  llms  prcpai'e 
the    earth   to    become    the    home   of    man?     Aiiv   s\stem    of 


IV  T' RE  FACE. 

gt'Oi^rnphy,   llicrefoi'c,   whicli   oiiiil.s   tlie   study   of   the   great 
slopes  of  the  i-arth,  laeks  a  very  essential  eleuieut. 
Tlie  aun  of  this  work  is, — 

1.  'I'o  grade  and  apportion  the  subjeet-matter  of  natural 
geography  to  the  sueeessive  stages  of  development  of  tin' 
ehild's  mind,  and  rid  the  study  of  its  myriads  of  worthless 
details. 

2.  To  direet  attention  to  the  laws  of  mind-gi'owth  which 
eondition  methods  of  ti'aehing,  and  to  suggest  devices  for 
stimulating  and  directing  mental  euei'gy. 

o.  'J'o  review  the  literature  of  geography,  and  indicate 
lines  of  study  for  teachers. 

Jt  is  sincerely  ho[)ed  that  what  is  here  gi\'en  will  prove 
suggestive  of  something  fai'  better,  and  that  the  seal  of 
individuality  will  lie  stamjx'il  on  every  teacher's  own  work. 
Let  no  man's  ideal  be  sla\-ishly  followed,  lest  it  l»ecome  an 
idol  :  lint  use  only  what  seems  best  lifted  to  stimulate  a 
growing  ideal. 

In  i)rcpaiin'j  this  sul)iect.  nmch  imi)oi'tnnt  geographical 
infornialion  was  obtained  fi'om  the  excellent  woi'ks  of  Kittcr, 
( Juyot.  Humboldt.  AN'allacc.  .Tohnston.  Iluxley,  ]Manry.  and 
others  ;   ;ind  grateful  Mckiiowledgmeiit  is  now  made  Ihcm. 

This  book  is  sent  out  with  tlie  hope  thnt  it  may  lighten  the 
woi'k  of  teachers,  and  make  the  school-days  of  childhood 
hai)pier  and  moi'c  profitable. 

ALi:X.    E.    FUYE. 

CAMiwcinui:,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1888. 


CONTENTS. 


INTHODl  (  riOX. 

CIIAl'TKl;    1.  PA..K 

SlI'iKl'    IIl^TOKV    i>l-    Gkci.KAI'IIV i 

CIIAI'lKi;    11. 
\'.\i,ri-;  III    Sriii'iiM,  ( '<i\  iimn  r  \  i.  m.^im- 11 

I'AK'T    I. 

IK) mi:  (.FjxniAriiY. 
<  iiAi'iKi;   III. 

8a.\i>  >roiii;i.[.i\<.   IX   Ij.i-.mi.ntakv  (;i:i  m,i:  Am  v i^ii 

CILM'TKi;    I\'. 

ri;|\iAi;v    I.i.--n\-.  —  KiK-T  T'.vo    \'i:\i;< .".4 

(  11  \rii.i;  \'. 

T)i-ri;ii  r   Kkiikt ■! ! 

FoKM-  i)i'  Lam'    \Nh  Wvrr.i; 1^ 

li.i.i  >iUATi\i',  I.i>-<iNs :>'2 

Mai'I'INi;   iiii;  l>i>ii:ii  i' .70 


VI  CONrENTS. 

CHAPTER   YI.  i.AGK 

Forces 80 

AVathh 82 

Soil-;Makino , 87 

Air 89 

Folt.M,    SiZIC,    AM)    3I<)TTONS    OF   THi:    K.MtiU 94 

CLniATi', 102 

CIIArrER    VII. 

LiiK loa 

Plants 10(i 

Animals 112 

("IlAl'TKi;   YIll. 

Max 117 

OfcrE'ATioxs      .     .          ,      .     .     ,     ,          117 

Co.^niEKCK 118 

RAfKS .                .                118 

1;i;li(;i.)Xs 120 

(;ovki;nmI':\ts    ....,..     = 121 

I'Airr  II. 

F()i!]-:i(;x  a /■:()(; hai'ii  v. 

(  lIAI'TKi;   IX. 

(Ji.or.K  OK  Cox  iixi;.\  1.  —  AViik  ii  Fiksi'.' 12:] 

rilAl'TKi;    X. 

Sank  >roi(i;i,r,ix(i   IX  Foiii:i<.x  (ii.ocuA  imi'i' 1:11 

en  \i'i'i:i;  xi. 

i;i:i.ii'i'  oi'  ■I'lii:  rJi.oni-: i:'>7 

TilK    CONIINI.NI'^ 1  10 

Mi.'hUhni m:. 

C>'nsl.Ln,'     Drnirh,,! l.'il 


CO  XT  i:\Ts. 


Vll 


ciiAPTKi:  xir.  i-AGK 

F<HKKs k;." 

Motions  ok  tiik  Eaktii Id") 

Winds ITn 

OcKAN-Cl  KRKNTS 174 

H-\INF.\LL IT'i 

("l.I.MATE 17"^ 

Soil. ISl 


r.iii; 


f  IIAPTKII   XIII. 


Plants Is:: 

Animals I'^ti 


CIIAPTKi;    XIV 


M  \N 

1')-' 

1'.);; 

Pklicions 

(;ovi;i;nmi:nis 

<  )('l'I"l'  \Tlo\-. 

.........  I'.a 

,     .     .   l;i,") 

lite, 

I '.  'S 

CoNil.r-ION 

lint 

APPKXDIX. 

(rftADKI)    C'ol'K^i:    0|-    SlTKV 

Ti:Acm:i:-~"   Liukakv  of  Gkockaph v     .     . 
Sri'i'LK-MKN  iAi;v   1;i;a!)Ki;s  foi;  <'ini.iii;i:v 

Lll'.HAin'    Ol'    'I'CAVKI 


201 


h 


■"•Nature,  the  old  nurso,  took 
Tlie  child  upon  her  knee, 
Saying .  '  Here  is  a  story-book 
Thy  Father  has  written  for  thee.' 

"'Come,  wander  with  me,'  she  said, 
'  Into  regions  yet  untrod  ; 
And  read  what  is  still  unread 
In  the  manuscripts  of  God.' 

"  And  he  wandered  away  and  away 
With  Nature,  the  dear  old  nuise. 
Who  sang  to  him  night  and  day 
The  rhymes  of  the  universe. 

"And  wlienev(M'  the  way  seemed  long, 
Or  his  heart  began  to  feiil, 
8h(!  would  sing  a  more  woiulerful  song, 
Or  tell  a  more  njarvislious  tale." 

LoiKjfilloir  Id  Aijiissir. 


THE  CHILD  AND   NATURE. 


IXTRODLICXION. 
CIIAP'LKU    I. 

SHORT     HISTORY    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  '-nest  places"  of  civilizatit)!!  were  the  I'citile  valleys 
and  peninsulas  al>out  the  short's  of  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea 
and  Pei'sian  (iulf.  In  t'arly  times  the  natural  surroundings 
of  mountains  and  deserts  shut  out  invasiou  of  hostile  Irihrs. 
■while  the  many  :irms  of  the  sea  fostered  commereial  inter- 
course. Nature  produceil  abundantly  the  necessaries  of  life, 
and  at  a  very  earlv  [x-riod  tlicse  iz'rent  uai'den  s|)()ts  ln'c:ime 
tlie  homes  (jf  tlii;  classic  nations.  Here  we  must  look  for  the 
first  records  (^f  <i'eOi2,raphy.  Here  the  snilor,  the  trnxcller. 
the  soldier,  hrouuht  toucther  tlieir  accounts  of  foreign  lands. 
people,  winds,  ocean  currtMits,  and  apparent  motions  of  tlie 
lieavenlv  bodies  ;  and  <i"raduallv  fiom  these  ccntics  of  Icarn- 
iiiii'  the  clouds  of  ionorauce  were  rolled  hack'. 

The  early  history  of  (jvery  science  must  he  au  account  of 
the  <j,atherin<j;  of  the  facts  fi'oiu  which  its  laws  arc  dciluceil. 
The  mass  of  knowled^'c  thus  accumulated  does  not  cou^litutc 
the  science.  Not  until  some  master-mind  eompreheuds  the 
unity  in   all,    correlates   the    parts,    and    reveals   the    laws,    is 


2  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

the  science  unfolded.  The  world  has  had  many  recorders, 
but  few  geographers.  The  early  attempts  to  advance  the 
study  to  a  science  met  with  but  partial  success,  owing  to 
insufficient  data.  Not  until  the  great  Humboldt  had  given 
to  the  world  his  "Cosmos,"  could  the  master-mind  of  Carl 
Hitter  gather  up  the  almost  countless  threads  of  past  research, 
and  weave  them  into  the  beautiful  science  of  geography. 

This  sketch,  with  its  series  of  maps,  is  intended  to  indi- 
cate iu  a  general  way  the  growth  of  geographical  knowledge 
among  civilized  nations,  and  thus  suggest  a  system  of  ele- 
mentary study  ;  for  the  elements  of  all  sciences  sliould  lead 
along  the  lines  of  original  investigation  and  discovery.  Inci- 
dentally, the  rise  and  decline  of  a  few  of  the  great  empires 
may  be  noticed,  together  with  the  important  historical  events 
which  have  influenced  exploration  and  discovery. 

The  first  little  inap  (p.  3)  pictures  the  vrorld  as  known  to 
Homer  about  900  B.C.  Greece  is  represented  in  the  middle 
of  a  great  round  plain,  surrounded  by  the  liver  Ocean.  It 
is  difficult  to  trace  the  history  of  discovery  before  this  time, 
as  the  records  are  not  authentic.  It  is  believed,  however, 
tliat  during  the  "heroic  age,"  the  Argonauts  ex[)lored  the 
Black  Sea,  and  that,  a  little  later,  the  siege  of  Troy  made 
known  the  countries  of  Asia  jMinoi'. 

During  several  centuries  before  the  time  of  Homer,  the 
hardy  Pluenician  sailors  liad  explor(Hl  the  islands  and  coasts 
of  the  great  sea,  planting  colonies,  and  carryinp;  on  an  exten- 
sive commerce.  In  the  south,  Kgyi)t  iiad  alii-ud}'  passed  the 
most  splendid  i)eriod  of  her  history  ( I  .")()0-l  200  B.C:.)  ;  Itut 
Kthiopia  was  still  one  of  the  most  [)owerful  stnt(>s  of  the 
known  world. 

Tlie  (iriMik  minstrel  was  acquainted  with  the  countries  l)or- 
\leiing  tlie  t-astcrn  half  of  the  ]Mediterran(>an,  incl.uding  .Isia 


J  y^      0-        ^  '^- 


/ 


/ 


/j 


/M 


\  -' 


V 


j\' 


Y.  y  ,  i:   o   i-  .\ 


V 


\^  /  ^.^ 


s 


7      ;      I 


/        \)vv>. 


4  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Minor.  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt ;  l)ut  liis  iviiowledge  does  not 
appear  to  have  exteiided  to  the  great  monarchies  in  the  valley 
of  the  Tigris  anil  Eu})hrates. 

The  map  (II.)  of  Herodotus  (150  B.C.)  shows  a  marked 
increase  in  geogi'aphical  knowledge.  The  intervening  [xaiod 
witnessed  tlie  estai)lishment  of  large  and  tloui'ishing  colonies 
all  around  the  shores  of  the  ]Mi'diterranean  and  Black  Seas. 
The  Pluenicians,  pushing  boldly  westward,  had  discovered 
England  and  Ireland,  and  had  even  sent  their  hard}^  sailors 
1»Y  way  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indies.  The  caravan  trade 
had  opened  the  eastern  counti'ies  as  far  as  India.  Carthage 
h:id  extended  hei'  sway  westwai'd  to  the  Atlantic,  and  Rome 
was  ra[)idly  gaining  the  ascendancy  in  Italy.  The  thi'ce 
great  Persian  invasions  of  (ireece,  ending  disastrously  in  the 
shipwreck  off  Mount  Athos  and  the  defeats  at  Marathon, 
Salamis,  and  Plata'a,  marked  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of 
the  Persian  Empire.  The  ••age  of  Pericles"  had  begun  in 
Athens,  and  that  city  was  at  the  height  of  her  glory. 

The  "Father  of  Ilistoiy  "  had  travelled  through  Asia 
Minor,  PlKenicia.  Lower  I\uvpt,  and  3Iesopotamia,  whicli, 
witli  his  own  couiili'v.  lie  has  accurately  (h'seribed  ;  but  he 
]<iiew  xvvy  little  of  the  discoveries  to  the  westward,  and  has 
noteven  iiientione(l  the  name  of  Rome.  TIh'  known  world  was 
divided  into  I'au'ope  and  Asia,  ai'ound  whicli  he  placed  the 
Adantic  Sea.  The  far-awav  people  of  the  Xorlh  were  called 
■■  1 1 vperl)oreans  "  (dwelleis  Im'voikI  11i(>  north  wind),  and  the 
distant  lands  of   the  Past  weic  teMne(l  ■•  ('ulxuowii  !)esci1s." 

The  pei-iod  of  the  mai)  (MI.)  of  Sli-al>o  is  about  the 
beuiniiiiiL:'  of  the  (  i  i  I'ist  i;iii  era.  (  ieo^raphieal  disco\crv  had 
long  befoi-e  souiidei]  tile  kliell  of  liivlholoi^y  ;   for  1  lu!  siip[)Osed 


HISTORY  or  (;i:()(;iiAi'iiy.  :> 

il\V('llinU-liI;U-fS    el'     the     'S<)']>    IkI'I     lircll    <'\[.li  .ic^l.     ;ili'l     tllcil' 

luvilis  I'xiilciilcil.  'I'lif  \ict()ri()us  ;u-iii\'  nl'  Alrxniuli  i .  :\\uv 
(•()n(|iierin;^'  thf  hunN  lini-iU'riiiL:-  tln'  ea-'u'rii  >!ini'f  <<\'  the 
Mi-<litt'ri'aiir;iii.  aii'l  all  Liiwcr  i-',L;yi)t.  lia'l  lirc'vrii  ihc  |Mi\V('r 
of  the  I'd'-iaii-;.  aiid  lil'U'<l  ihc  \fil  I'l'diu  all  Iiiilia  as  far  as 
the  ( lanu'i's. 

'I'lic  lattci-  part  df  the  tiiinl  ccntm-y  1  >.( '.  marks  llic  dati' 
of  llic  first  uliiniiu'r  of  tlir  ilawniiiu'  sciciicc.  KratostiiciH's 
(•J7''>-r.»  1  !>.('.)  of  tilt"  si-hool  at  Alcxaii'lria  ln-uaii  to  rX[)lori> 
tli<'  l!fa\-ciis  for  liu'  kr\-  to  mat  ln-iiiat  leal  L^i'OLii'aiiliv.  ami  is 
ac(at'(litr(l  with  ha\iiiLi  licmi  tlir  lir>l  to  (liscoNci'  the  lu-occ-^s. 
I'mjiloVfil  at  the  pi-f-^ciit  time.  ol'  (Ictfi'iiiiiiimi'  the  maunitmh'  of 
llir  earth  1)V  the  mca-iireimMit  ol'  an  arc  i  if  a  ui'^at  (■ir<'!e.  Xoi 
was  that  all  :  for.  as  IJitlrr  has  imlic.MttMl  in  ■•  j  )ic  ( ic^rhichte 
(ler  l-'.nlkimile."'  he  aUi  >  -tmlicil  tin'  I'elation  of  ii'reLi'ular  coast- 
lilii's  to  cDiiliiiciilal  areas,  t' i^i't  her  with  the  et'feets  ot'  Lireal 
iiatuial  t'caliiifs  njinii  climate:  aii<l  iiscil  paiallels  ami  meri- 
dians ill  hi--  maps  ti)  locate  im[ior!aiit  place-.  Ancient 
recorils  tell  u-  t'lal  alioiil  this  time  aUi.)  the  lir-t  -Iclie  was 
made  liv  (lates.  x)  that  thi-  period  may  I'c  truly  said  to 
ha\-e  fi 'icsji, ((lowed  the  wnik  <if  iicailv  twenty  eentui'ie-.  later. 

IJefoi-e  .V.l).  1.  IJoine  had  extended  hta'  swav.  in  the  I'lP'.i^: 
wars.  ii\-cr  Sp:iiii  and  tin'  >mal!ta'  po>se>>itins  nf  (  artliaue  : 
sulidueil  Aliieria:  annexed  all  the  .Maceilonian  I-aii|iii'e  west 
of  I'er-ia  to  her  dominion^  :  nnd  in  (  ;e-ai'"s  campaign-  had 
eoiifpiercd  (iaiil  and  invaded  liiilain.  l)iirinL;'  tlii--  jicriod. 
^■eoiiraphieal  knowledge  ad\'aneed  x.iithwaid  alnio-t  to  the 
sniii'ecs  of  the  .Nile,  eastward  to  (.'hina.  and  northward  to 
the  r.altie  Sea. 


Claiidins    I'tolemy   of     Alexandria    (aKoin    Ad).    l.">ii)    was 
the   grtxitesl    c'e, ,j_^|-;qil|,.i-   ,,[■    aiicieiit    times.       His    maps    ron- 


6 


TJIK   CJIIIJ)    AS  I)    NAT  CUE. 


taiiicd  nil  tlic  iiiiportniit  i»i;iccs  of  tlu;  kiKjwn  world,  located 
by  p:u':dh'ls  niid  nicridiuns.  He  eouiputed  the  different  alti- 
tudes of  the  sun  in  the  vniious  cities  at  the  time  of  the 
equinoxes  and  solstices,  from  the  pi'oportion  of  an  U[)ri<iht 
pole  {ijiioiiioii)  to  its  shadow  ;  and  from  these  calculated  the 
length  of  the  longest  day  in  each  place,  thus  determining  its 
distance  frcjm  the  ecjuator.  The  mei'idiaus  were,  of  coui'se, 
the  lines  having  mid-day  at  thi^  same  time. 

His  hooks  of  ''  Universal  (ieogra[)h3'."  suirnning  n[)  the 
knowledge  gained  tlu'ough  tra\-el.  military  expeditions,  and 
the  great  survey  of  the  Koman  Kin[)ire.  constitute  the  master- 
piece of  the  age.  His  system  of  astronomy  which  fixed 
the  earth  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  revolved  all  the 
heavenly  bodies  around  it  from  east  to  west,  ruled  the  scien- 
tific world  all  through  the  l^ark  Ages.  sa\-e  when  the  ban  of 
the  church  made  it  heresy  to  hold  any  belief  at  \ariaiice 
with  that  of  a  Hat  round  earth  whose  centi'C  was  .lerusalem. 
Considei'iug  the  period  in  which  he  lived,  the  lat)or  i)er- 
formed  by  this  great  man  stands  almost  without  parallel  in 
the  annals  of  science. 

The  map  on  j).  .'!  (I\'.)  indicates  a  mai'ke(l  advance  in 
gef)grapliical  rcsi.'ai'ch.  It  alsc;  illustrates  the  odd  belief  that 
Asia  and  Africa  joined  in  the  south,  inclosing  the  great  si'a 
of  India.  This  probably  arose  from  mistaking  the  lai'ge 
islands  of  the  l^ast  Indies  foj- a  c<)ntiuuation  of  the  mainland. 
T!ie  accui'acy  with  which  manv  of  the  mountains  and  i'i\'ers 
are  di'awn  is  evidence  of  a  fair  knowledge  of  relief  as  well 
as  of  location. 


Hut  little  advancement  was  made  in  geography  during  the 
Dark  Ages.  It  is  claimed,  howcvd'.  that  about  the  year 
i(.M)()    A.I).,    the   (iri'enland   colonies   sent    out    an   expedition 


niSTOllY    OF   (iFJXniAl'llY.  7 

under  Lcif.  roii  of  V.x'w  llie  Hcil.  wlu)  diseovcrt'cl  Newfound- 
land.  No\a  Scotia,  and  3Iailha"s  N'incyard.  Ai  the  dawn  of 
the  new  era.  the  diseovei'ies  of  C'olunil)iis.  \'asi'o  de  (Jama, 
and  MaiieUan.  eonii)letely  overturned  the  Ptoleniaie  system, 
and  foreecl  the  seientitic  woi'ld  to  adopt  the  theory  of  a  solar 
■system.  It  is  asserted  that  Tythaiioras  of  Sanios  taught 
llie  rotundity  of  the  earth,  and  its  i)o.-;ition  in  the  solar 
system  ;  Iiut  little  iiotiee  was  taken  of  this  doctrine  until 
It  was  revived  liv  Copernicus,  and  still  later  by  (ialileo. 
\Valdsee-Miiller.  a  (ierman  [)r()fessor.  was  the  lirst  to  publish 
a  map  of  the  New  World,  in  which  he  L!,ave  it  the  name  Amer- 
ica, ill  honor  of  Americus  \'es[)ucius,  whose  journeys  affoi'ied 
the  data  for  the  map. 

Aliout  1. ').")(■)  a  Flemish  mathematician  named  Mei'cator 
(•ousti-iicted  the  lirst  mai)  of  the  whole  WfM'ld,  upon  the  }iro- 
iecliou  which  lu/ais  his  name.  Such  is  the  chart  used  l»y 
na\'iL!,ators  to-day.  and  no  iin't'iition  before  or  since,  except 
the  mariner's  compass,  lias  Liiveii  siicli  iiii|)etus  to  ocean 
tra\i'l.  The  sailor  can  now  mark  the  shortest  routes  !)y 
straiiiht.  lines,  whereas  before  he  was  obliucd  to  use  compli- 
cated (au\es.  'J'he  [)riiieipal  use  of  a  .Mercator's  map  is  to 
indicate  dii'cctions.  The  comparative  areas  of  tluM'ontinents 
and  (x-eans  are  much  more  accurately  re[)resented  l»y  another 
projection,  known  as  the  sjihcriral.  first  used  l»v  l'liili[)pe  de 
la  Hire  (  l''b)-17i>;).  This  distorts  the  hcmisplieres  a  little 
near  the  ed'_^es.  but  is  superior  to  .Mercator's  in  preserviuu' 
llie  [iro|)ortions  of  the  u'reat  natural  divisions.  (_)ther  i)lans 
have  l)een  devise(l  ;  Imt  these  two,  or  sliuiit  modilications  of 
them,  are  li'enerallv  used  in  repi'esentin^'  the  whole  or  any 
lariie  portion  of  the  ulolie.  The  conlritl  projection  is  employed 
in  nia[)[)inLi'  small  sections  oiilv. 

The  opening'  of  the   present  century   marks  a   new  era   in 


8  77//';   t'IllLl>   AND   NATURE. 

the  liisiory  of  li'cognqjliy.  Tlie  scientific  researches  of 
IliimbohU,  followed  by  the  skilful  iiiifokling  of  the  study  by 
Ritter,  soon  placed  it  on  '"an  equal  footing  with  the  sister 
sciences/'  The  journey  of  Humboldt  (1801-1^0")),  which 
won  for  him  lhi>  title  of  ■•  Sc-ientilic  Discoverer  of  America," 
and  his  later  travels  through  Central  Asia,  are  too  well  known 
to  need  repetition  here,  lie  was  the  iirst  to  teach  geogra- 
phers to  indicate  climate  belts  by  means  of  isotherms  ;  to 
divide  the  w(n'ld  into  natnral  regions,  basing  the  divisions 
upon  iiatia-al  features,  for  showing  the  distribution  of  life; 
to  grou[)  the  [)lants  in  a  few  great  geographical  families,  and 
refer  them  to  climatic  conditions.  We  are,  moreover,  in- 
debted to  him  for  the  fust  accurate  descriptions  of  the  basin 
ol'  the  Orinoco,  the  plateau  of  the  Andes,  Mexico,  and  Cuba; 
all  of  which  are  based  u\)o\\  personal  observation  and  inves- 
i'ig.-ilion. 

lie  wns  also  the  first  to  discover  the  value  of  studying 
pl,ite;ui  masses  in  their  influence  ui)on  drainage ;  and  his 
eross-seetion  of  Mexico,  from  Acapulco  to  Vera  Cruz,  was 
the  lirsl  cioss-seciiou  of  a  continent  ever  made.  His  journey 
to  Ceutrnl  Asia  was  followed  by  the  first  accurate  description 
of  llic  plateau  i)ortion  of  tliat  continent,  and  biter  ])y  his 
cstimMlc  of  the  average  elevation  of  the  continents  above  the 
s(  a.  'i'o  him  bclouus  the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  the  in- 
dividuality of  tlie  earth,  which  is  the  foundation  of  compar- 
;iti\c  geogrnpliy.  In  such  a  sketch  as  this  we  can  only  glance 
III  the  chief  featui'cs  of  his  life  work  for  geography,  although 
e\  cry  <le[)arlment  of  science  was  stimulated  by  his  discover- 
ies. It  may  be  truly  said  of  him,  that  under  his  touch  chaos 
iK'came  cosmos. 

It  is  dillicult  to  decide  which  merits  the  higher  honor,  the 
m;ui  V,  iiose  researches  and  generalizations  lay  the  foundation 


iiisTonv  or  in:()(;iiAriiY. 


9 


of  a  science,  or  the  inastci--iiiin(l  which  :uUls  tlie  superstruc- 
tiiiv.  They  are  oiu',  and  the  names  ul'  llunilujldt  ami  Ivitlrr 
must  ever  l»e  [)hice(l  side  by  siile  on  the  titU'paue  of  ^cuiiiaiiliy. 

••The  imiiviiliiality  of  the  earth  "  hecaine  the  ••  watcliword 
of  tlie  new  science."  From  the  mere  location  of  a  mountaii! 
ranue  to  the  i^reat  movements  of  nations,  all  became  a  serii'- 
of  livinu'  relations.  Ivitter's  inti'llect  uas  a  touch>tone  to 
nature,  ami  ^■eourai)hy  became  •■  The  Science  of  the  l-^arth  in 
Kelation  t(j  Nature  and  the  History  of  ."Man."  To  him  the 
earth  was  ■•the  theatre  of  human  actions:"'  and  the  uiX'at 
niiu'ratioirs  of  nations  over  its  surface  or  across  its  staLie 
were  the  direct  outiirowth  of  their  own  inner  natures.  inlluenctMl 
by  their  natuial  surroundings.  He  thus  became  ilu'  founder 
of  tiie  ti'ue  philosoi)liy  of  lii>tory  which  [ilaces  it  ■■  within  the 
domain  of  nature."  and  refers  its  lans  to  Lit'OLiraphical  rela- 
tions. The  trends  of  the  iireat  mountain  systems,  the  com- 
IKirative  areas  of  hlLihlands  and  lowhuid^,  the  i)ro[iorti(.)ns  of 
continental  surfaces  to  coa-t  lines,  the  di-.[)<.)sition  of  land 
and  watiM'  areas,  wei'e  studieil  in  their  inlluence  upon  climate, 
the  distribution  of  life,  and  tlic  intellectual  development  of 
the  ract'S. 

The  lives  and  woi'k-^  of  tliesi>  two  noble  men  should  lie 
familiar  to  e\-erv  child.  To  their  niarxellous  powers  oi 
observation  ami  ui-ncialization.  we  ;u\'  indebted  for  the  stmlv 
of  natural  science  in  the  |)ublic  schools.  J^\ery  ucoiiraphv, 
every  map.  e\-ery  history,  bears  the  impress  of  tlieir  ureal 
y;eniuses.  One  day,  at  least,  each  year  should  luniu-  to  the 
children  the  stories  of  ihclr  early  lives,  travels,  divco\-i'rics. 
and  the  inthicnce  of  their  work  upon  our  own  ilailv  hap[)i- 
ness  in  school.  As  if  tlie  destinies  of  these  great  men  were 
liound  up  in  each  other,  thev  passed  awav  at  almost  the  same 
time,  —  Humboldt  in  May,  and  iJitter  in  October,  of  the  s.-inic 


10  THE   CHILI)   AND    NATURE. 

year,  185!), — bequeathing  to  the  world  tlie  fruit  of  tlieir 
labor  which  will  ever  associate  their  names  in  the  memory  of 
a  grateful  people. 

Nor  should  we  forget  our  own  Arnold  (iuyot  who  has 
labored  so  faithfully  to  introduce  this  science  in  America. 
The  most  illustrious  representative  of  Hitter's  work,  he  has 
not  only  stimulated  the  better  teaching  of  geography,  but  his 
personal  research  has  given  him  high  rank  in  the  world  of 
science.  l>y  his  recent  death,  the  teaching  profession  lost  its 
ablest  exponent  of  comparative  geography. 

Much  remains  to  l)e  done.  The  science  is  still  in  its 
infancy,  and  the  steps  l)y  which  the  minds  of  children  can 
rise  to  its  generalizations  have  not  yet  l)een  designed.  The 
great  lines  of  observation  are  as  yet  merely  indicated.  But 
societies  are  being  organized  to  lu-omote  geographical  re- 
search. Teachers  are  rapidly  awakening  to  the  necessity  of 
basing  their  work  ui)on  a  more  rational  method  than  the 
mere  memorizing  of  isolated  details,  and  the  movement  seems 
destined  to  sweep  all  over  our  land.  Hasten  the  day  when 
the  minds  of  our  little  children,  instead  of  being  warped  and 
narrowed  by  dei)endence  upon  the  genei'alizations  and  beliefs 
of  others,  may  i-ise  into  full  and  natural  activity  by  original 
investigation  and  independence  of  thought.  Then,  like 
Hitter,  may  they  "  find  truth  not  in  a  single  phase  of  truth, 
but  in  the  union  of  all  truth." 


////■;  (.i.oiii:  ur.Lii.F. 


11 


(  IlAl'TKl;  II. 
VALUE  OF  STUDYING  CONTINENTAL  SLOPES. 

Tin:  lil'r  of  the  cni-tli  spiiiiLis  iVom  it>  <i(i[)i's. 

AN'hcifXcr  we  cxMiniiu'  llic  laml  --urt'iifc.  we  \\\A  thnt  il 
(•(,)n.-isls  (if  slii[ir<.  h  iiiav  lie  llic  aliiiiisl  inip('i'cc[ilililc  rise 
ill  tlic  piairir-,  (ir  iiiaiiiir  iilaiii--  U/ailiiii;'  t.i  the  lii^ii  iilali'au>. 
or  r\cii  llio  al>iii|it  uioiiiilaiii  >i(lc-  ;  lnil  li'a\t'l  wliciT  \vr  inav. 
we  >!iall  liii'l  lliL'  >!iil'a'-t_'  fViTvwlnTi'  cliaiiLiiiiu  In  lc\fl. 
Slopf  i-  tlji-  uiiil  of  icliff.  ami  in  its  iiiulti[ili'  coinliiiialioiis 
liiiiiN  vww  foi'iu  thai  L;i\'i'-  xarictv  to  laml-ra  j  irs.  Its 
>iiiiliii--l  '.imitations  air  tin-  hill  aii'l  \allf\'.  ainl  all  other 
laii'l  foim-  ait;  hut  nio'lili'-at  ion-  of   tlir-,!'  coiiiiiinn  tyin'--. 

'I'hr  >iirfa<:c  of  the  l:IoIic  con-i-K.  in  udid'al.  of  two 
inmifii-r  --lopi's.  the  iii'i'iM'  cil::.---  i.t'  wiiidi  im-ct  alonu  the 
'^rr;it    continental  u  atri-pa  i ;  in::-.  cMi  ipiini;  in  the  foian   of   ;i 

l.io|,  ,,!•  hol>r-ho,-   fivni   (ape   Il..|||   t '  >   t !  m  •  { 'a  |  ic  of  ( 1  Hope 

(  src  map  on  j,.  1 ,",  i  :  an'l  I  hr  |,  iw  cr  cilur-  of  w  hirh  iiiari<  1  he 
line  ( if  di'c]  u--t   .-hanheU  in  t  h.'  -ca  . 

Within  thi-  urral  -I.i!m'  watm'-pari  inu .  thf  -lope  i-  \aTV 
u'ra-lual.  its  lowi'i'  hall'  onlv  hriiiLi^  i-oNrrrM  with  the  walci's 
of  thi'  Atiantir  ;  luit  wilhoul.  it  (|r-rcn<U  \-rr\-  alirirplly.  thus 
allowiiiL!-  the  I'arilh-  1,1  ll,,\v  in  nearly  to  Um-  lo,.t  ,,f  the 
pi'imarv  hiuhlau'ls.  Vny  this  ica-nn.  the  Allaiilic  has  a 
much  laru('i'  lia-in  ImiI  coiTc-pdiiilineK-  -mailer  lic.l. 

'i"hese   Lireat    >lope>   ale    >o    lelaleil    to   the    w  iin  1-1  lelts   that 


1-2 


THl':   CHILI)    A\l)   NATURE. 


the  ti'ndo-wiiids  with  their  iuonsoons  are  forced  to  precipi- 
tate rains  aUei'iiately  upon  tlie  broad  i)huns  of  the  eastern 
and  western  heniis[)lieres,  within  and  a  little  beyond  the 
tro[)ics  ;  while  the  return  trades  [)ei'forni  a  similar  work  for 
the  slo[)es  in  the  temperate  zones.  The  globe  relief,  there- 
fore, detei-mines  tlie  rainfall  and  general  direction  of  drain- 
age ;  l)rit  the  plan  for  collecting  tlie  water  into  Itasins,  and 
for  giving  the  exact  direction  to  rivers  is  found  in  the 
continent.  This  is  accomplished  l)y  placing  secondaiy  high- 
lands upon  the  long  slopes. 

Thus,    Fig.    1    is  a  cross  section  of   the  glolK>  relief,   and 
Fig.   '2.  of  the  continent.      Each  secondary  hiuhland  sends 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


back  a  slojx'  towaid  the  primai'V.  and  the  line  along  which 
their  lower  edges  meet  b.ecomes  the  bed  of  the  ri\'er  which 
then  follows  the  general  slope  to  the  sea. 

'I'o  illustrate,  let  ns  examine  the  sui'faces  of  the  conti- 
nents : 

In  South  Amt'rica.  for  example,  we  find  on  the  west  the 
platenu  of  the  Andes.  —  ;i  poi'tion  of  the  globe  water-parting. 
From  this,  tlie  long  slope  sti'etches  to  the  Atlantic,  the 
short  on(>  to  the  racilic.  lis  posilion  within  the  ti'opi<'s  opens 
its  gi'eat  [ilain  1o  the  moist  trade-winds  as  far  south  as  the 
mouth  of  Fa  I'lata.  Ilnice  the  hea\y  I'ainfall  east  of  the 
Andes,  and  the  long  strip  of  rainless  coa'^t  on  the  west. 
South  of  .">0^  S..  the  rctui'u  trades  bring  copious  rains  to 
Chili,  but  leave  I'atagoiiia  on  the  east  a  saiidv  plateau.  The 
fei'tile  sti'ip  of  I'aeilie  coast  near  the  e(iuatoi'  resii-lts  from  the 
land  and  sea  bn-ezes  in   the   belt  of  calms,  and   from  a  liuht 


THE    (ilJiI'.l-:    UF.LIKF 


18 


limil^Mdil  t'l'iiiii  (  til!  i;!l  A  !ll('ric:l .  'I'lic  Wcl  nliil  ill'V  -^rMsoil-^ 
of  the  ()iiii()cii  ifsiill  tViilii  llii'  ;iltri'ii;itc  inotli  nini  xmtli 
[Kisit  inns  of  tln'>uii.  \\liii-,i-  licni  iiirii--  liic  I  im  Ic-wiinU  lu-ic 
into  monsoons. 

Alon'j  the  castcni  <-(i:i-i.  on  tlic  !oii'_;  -.1(i|k'.  tlnTf  is  m  srr- 
omhirv  liiulihinii  liiokcn  nito  two  |>;iit-.  l'>i:i/,il  ;npl  <.iii;iii;i. 
which  turn  the  wntfr  into  thirc  L^rcnl  li.-i'-in^.  (  )iinoco.  Anin- 
zoii  ami  L.-i  I'hit.-i.  anil  thii-  ih'lci'niiiir  tiif  iinlixiihialil v  of 
lilt'  continent.  I-A'crv  Imsin  lia~-  three  --Inpc^  :  ami  lien'  each 
|iaii- of  hiulihimls  I'liiaii-^hes  the  twnwho-e  plaec  nf  nieetine' 
locales  the  ri\'cr-lie(l.  uliile  tlic  ercat  iijaleaii  canoes  all  to 
How  eastward  to  the  Atlantic. 

Any  cluiuiie  in  the  iH»ition  of  the  [irimary  hiuiiland  would 
produce    a    correspondint:'    t'hanue    in    rainfall   anii   drainaec, 


14  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Transfer  tlie  Andes  to  the  eastern  coast,  and  the  great  forest 
of  the  Amazon  would  li'ive  phu-e  tc^  a  second  Suhara.  Stretch 
the  westei'ii  plateau  of  North  .Vuierica  cast  and  west  across 
the  scnithern  part  of  the  I'nited  Slatt'S,  and  it  would  shut 
out  the  moist  (iuif-winds  tliat  now  s\vec[)  u[)  the  31ississippi 
valley.  I'lace  the  Alps  north  and  south  along  the  west  coast 
of  Kuropt',  an<l  liiey  would  not  only  in1erce[)t  tlie  moist  south- 
west winds  flowing  in  from  the  (iulf  Sti-eam,  but  such  an 
arrangement  woukl  also  remove  tlie  great  rain-condenser  of 
the  soutliern  sl()[)es.  and  let  in  ui)on  those  historic  peninsu- 
las the  cold  north  wind.  Alter  the  position  of  the  plateau 
of  Abyssinia-,  and  the  Nile  and  Congo  would  disap[)ear.  It 
is  thus  seen  that  pi-imary  highlands,  to  be  of  greatest  value 
to  a  continent,  must  be  placed  along  its  lee  side,  so  as  to 
admit  the  moist  winds  to  its  great  plains.  A  large  part  of 
the  moisture  is  then  precipitated  by  lightning,  cold  currents 
of  air,  and  other  causes,  upon  the  lower  as  w^ell  as  the  up[)er 
l)ortions  of  the  slopes. 

Likewise  any  change  in  the  location  of  secondary  high- 
lands may  turn  the  waters  of  a  continent,  with  tln'ir  load  of 
rich  silt,  towai^l  tlie  e(|uat<)i'  or  toward  the  poles  :  to  i)iT)duce 
like  the  ^lississippi.  or  lie  waste  like  flu'  Mackenzie.  Re- 
move the  low  height  of  laud  aci'oss  Central  Russia,  and  that 
counti'y  would  lose  its  gre;it  natural  highway  of  commerce 
down  the  \'olL;a  to  the  ()rieiit.  A  slight  elevation  would  turn 
the  Xile  into  the  Congo  liasin.  ;ind  gi\-e  1iack  to  the  desert 
the  little  sti'ip  of  fertile  land  whidi  the  river  has  work'e(l  so 
manv  centuries  to  redeem,  and  which  has  exerted  such  iiillu- 
eiice  ill  history.  Join  the  talilc-laiids  of  Rrazil  and  (luiaiia. 
aii<l  the  drainage  of  all  Central  South  America  would  be 
modified. 

Thus,   while  the    g(Mieral   rainfall   icsiilts   from   the  simple 


THE   CLOliK    111-: LIEF. 


lo 


plan  of  placing  the  great  [plateaus  across  the  wind  circuits, 
the  wonderful  vaiiety  in  conlinental  drainage  is  determined 
by  the  relative  positions  of  i)riniary  and  secondary  sl()[)es. 
The  lesser  iiighlands  tend  also  to  e(]ualize  the  distiiliution  of 
rain  upon  the  different  parts  of  the  long  slopes,  and  prevent 
ocean-currents  from  washing  away  alluvial  plains  in  i)rocess 
of  formation. 

The  position  of  the  |»lateaus,  l)y  locating  rainfall  and 
giving  direction  to  drainage,  also  regulates  the  distril)ution 
of  soil.  Water  is  the  great  leveller.  Falling  upon  the  moun- 
tain sides  and  the  slopes  farther  down,  it  immediately  begins 
its  work  of  disintegrating  the  rocks,  and  grinding  still  finer 
the  l)e1)1jlcs  and  sand,  wliile  it  tends  to  swee|)  all  before  il 
into  the  valleys.  As  the  water  de[tosils  this  I'ock  inatiTial 
in  the  order  of  weight,  beginning  with  the  heaviest,  we  may 
readily  understand  why  the  linest  and  lichest  deposits  have 
been  made  in  the  lower  coui'si's  of  rivers,  and  how  the  soil 
has  been  car(>fully  griided  throughout  the  ri\-er-basins  of  the 
globe.  Thus  we  fnid  tlint  sl^pc,  as  di'termined  Iiy  the  phicing 
of  the  highlands,  is  natiu'c's  means  of  supplying  the  food 
which  water  [>rep:ii'es  and  distril)utes  for  vegetation. 

The  distribution  of  life  over  the  glol)e  is.  of  course,  greatly 
influenced  by  tcm|>ei:itin'e.  as  well  as  by  soil  and  moisture. 
I)Ut  while  the  spherical  foi'm  of  th(>  caith  tends  to  estalilish 
great  l)elts  of  teiiiperatiu'c.  varying  only  with  their  distances 
from  the  "(piatoi-.  the  relative  positions  and  ele\'ations  of 
the  natural  features  determine  the  maiiv  modilli-alions  that 
characterize  [M)rti()us  of  the  surface  in  the  same  latitude. 
Chief  among  these  modiliers  is  the  arrangement  of  the  gi'cat 

slolH'S. 

The  gradual  elevation  from  the  Arctic  coast  to  the  i)lateau 
of  Thilu't  gives  to  Centi'al  and  X(»rthern  Asia   a   temperature 


16  THE   CHI  LB  AND   NATURE. 

far  below  that  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  other 
continents  ;  and  tlie  same  higiiland,  with  its  desert  belt,  in- 
fluences the  How  of  tlie  warm  monsoons  to  India.  The  Alps 
which  in  former  years  were  a  greater  barrier  than  distance 
would  have  l)een  l)etween  the  tropi<'al  and  temperate  l)elts, 
have  IK  \v,  by  means  of  the  mountain-tunnels  and  passes, 
placed  sidi'  l)y  sid(,'  the  sunny  fruit-lands  of  the  South,  and 
the  colder  grain-tields  of  Middle  l'".urope.  These  mountains, 
aided  l)y  tlu;  (Julf  Stream  and  the  Sahara,  also  give  to  Italy 
a  tropical  climate  in  the  same  latitude  that  witnesses  in  Chili 
great  glacicn's  winding  toward  the  sea.  Mexico  and  the 
northern  Andes  serve  to  illustrate  how  a  perpetual  s})ringtime 
ma}'  exist  within  tiie  great  tropical  heat-l)elt. 

Slojics  tlieu  inlluence  the  distribution  of  vegetation,  and 
tlu'ough  it  the  animal  life,  in  various  wa^-s  ;  e.g.,  b}^  precipi- 
tating moisture,  supplying  soil  and  modifying  temperature. 
To  slope,  in  connection  with  the  zones  of  heat  resulting  from 
the  foi'm  of  the  eaith,  is  mainly  due  the  arrangement  of 
plant  life  in  gi'cat  natural  regions.  In  travelling  northward 
from  the  e(iuat()r,  we  pass  successively  through  belts  of 
tropical  forests  with  tlieir  valuable  woods  and  fruits;  cotton, 
lice  and  canes;  cei'cals  and  temperate  fruit;  pine  forests; 
and  (inally  into  tlu^  frozen  regions  about  the  pole. 

]!ut  on  (;vci'v  side  we  see  the  influence  of  relief.  F)y  climb- 
ing a  high  plateau  and  mountain-range  within  the  tropics, 
we  may  witness  the  same  oi'der  of  production  as  in  our 
l(.)nger  joui'ney  to  the  north.  Again,  in  the  same  latitude, 
ilesei'ts  and  gi'azing-ti'acts  often  ahernate  with  rich  agricul- 
tiu'al  lands  ;  and  the  reason  I'oi'  tliese  modifications  may  be 
generally  tiaced  to  the  ii'lative  jutsitions  and  elevatious  of 
the  higlihinds. 

The  animals  arc  quite  as  dependent  as  tlie  plants  upon   the 


TIIK   CLOnE    UEIJKF 


V 


contiiientul  slopes.  Any  fcntui'e  nl't'ectini;'  tlic  (listfiluilion  of 
food  must  [)rove  an  aid  or  a  ItarruT  to  tlicii'  dis[)fi-sal.  The 
oceans  are.  of  eoui'se.  tlii'  ;j,reatest  limitations,  and  in  one 
instanee.  Australia,  have  effec-tually  cut  olf  i:reat  families 
from  the  i-e->t  of  tlie  earth.  Next  in  effect  are  the  <2,reat 
|)lateaus  and  deserts.  In  the  westei'U  hemis[)here.  the  lii^h- 
lands  of  Mexieo  separate  the  families  of  the  Xoith  and 
South.  In  the  eastern,  the  eold  t:dile-land  of  'I'liihet  and  the 
desert  plati'aus  of  Sahara  and  Ai'ahia  set  apart  the  fauna 
eonnnon  to  Northern  and  Western  Asia,  all  i-'-ui'ope  and 
Northern  Africa,  fi'oni  that  <.)f  India  and  al>o  of  ti'opit-al 
Africa.  The  lireat  Sahara  sea  (of  sand)  is  a  much  more 
formidal>le  liai'rier  than  the  3Iediterrane;in. 

In  the  natural  I'euions  thus  mai'ked  out.  the  ranue  of  smalhu' 
Liroui»s  of  animals  is  also  limitetl  hy  lesser  elevations.  On 
our  own  continent,  for  example.  accoi-diuL!,'  to  ^Vallace.  the 
western  ])lateau  has  a  uronp  distinct  from  that  in  the  western 
\allev  reachiuL!,'  from  California  to  ISritish  ('olumliia:  and 
al-o  from  that  in  the  ln'oad  vallev  of  the  !Missi-^si|ipi.  The 
lieiLi.ht  of  land  which  parts  the  north  and  south  drainau'e  sep- 
arates also  the  faima  of  Ilrili^h  Amei'ica  from  that  of  tin' 
rnite<l  States.  Tli(>  same  inlhience  of  plivsical  <'onditi(>ns  is 
likewise  olisei'valile  in  the  other  continents.  W'e  are  thus  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  a  kiiowledLlt'  of  the  li'i'eat  slopes  of  the 
eai'tli  is  essential  to  the  intelliu'cnt  studv  of  the  distrihulion 
of    life. 

Connuercial  intercourse  is  JarLiciv  Iiascd  upon  the  dilfer- 
eiices  ill  |)ro(lucti<in  of  the  \arious  parts  of  the  eartli.  and  its 
oNH'rland  I'outes  of  trade  are  ij,'enei'allv  locateil  liy  physical 
featuri'S.  i'"or  how  manv  centuries  have  the  cara\an  I'oulcs 
from  th(^  ."Mediterranean  counti-ies  to  India  <-onveru'ed  upon 
the   famous   [lasses  of   tlie   Suliman    .Mountains?      I'lie  lower 


18  THE   CHILT)    AND   NATUIiE. 

cataract  of  the  Nile,  being  the  head  of  river  navigation,  has 
for  a  long  period  been  a  centre  of  caravan-trade  with  Central 
Africa.  The  remarkable  valley  of  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk 
through  the  Appalachian  highlands  led  to  the  construction  of 
the  Erie  Canal,  and  became  the  highway  between  East  and 
West.  Later,  the  railroad  took  advantage  of  the  same  natu- 
ral feature.  Then  other  passes  were  found  over  the  moun- 
tains farther  south,  and  new  routes  were  followed.  In  the 
beautiful  Keystone  State  there  is  scarcel}'  a  stream  whose 
work  of  ages  in  carving  those  wonderful  water  and  wind 
gaps  has  not  already  influenced  the  location  of  one  or  moi'c 
lines  of  railroad.  Even  the  vast  western  highlands  opened 
that  the  two  oceans  might  be  joined  by  great  trunk  lines. 
The  directions  of  nature's  greatest  inland  highways,  the 
rivers  and  lakes,  are  the  sheer  result  of  relief. 

The  termini  and  junctions  of  all  these  routes  became  the 
depots  for  the  produce  of  the  surrounding  districts,  and  thus 
the  great  commercial  cities  of  the  world  were  developed. 
The  grain  and  cattle  products  naturally  centre  in  Chicago, 
St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City,  for  the  lake,  river  and  railroad 
traffic  which  terminates  or  i)asses  through  New  Yoi'k.  IJoston. 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans.  The  cities  about 
the  ]\Iediterranean  Sea  that  formerly  flourished  in  their  ex- 
tensive East-India  trade  date  their  decline  with  the  voyage 
of  \'asco  de  (Jama  which  opened  a  new  route  and  turned  the 
trade  to  England,  —  the  centi'c  of  distribution  for  Europe. 
Now  we  And  London  and  Liverpool  at  one  end  ;  Calcutta. 
Bombay  and  Melbourne  at  the  other. 

But  not  only  is  man,  as  well  as  the  lower  animals,  restricted 
to  the  food- producing  regions  of  the  earth  :  his  occupations 
are  also  directly  determined  by  the  possibilities  of  natural 
production.     Nature  has  allotted  to  each  region  certain  voca- 


THE   GLOBE    UELIEE. 


19 


tioiis,  and  srt  tlR'ir  liounds  in  tlie  structure  of  tlie  earth. 
The  fertile  valleys  have  developed  the  farmer:  the  i)(K)rer 
grassdands.  the  slu'i^hi'rd  :  the  forests,  the  hunter  and  ti'ap- 
per ;   the  mountains,  the  mini'r,  ete. 

The  intluence  ()f  different  occupations  is  an  essential  el(»- 
nieut  in  the  study  of  the  Li'rowth  of  civilization.  ^lan  owes 
his  culture  lai'uely  to  work  as  dctermint'<l  hy  his  physical  sur- 
roundiims.  ( ;eoura})liers  have  long'  since  shown  that  not  in 
the  frozen  regions  where  his  whole  energy  is  hent  upon 
se(au'ing  even  scanty  food  and  sheltei'.  nor  yet  in  the  toi'rid 
Ill-It  where  all  necessary  jiroducls  come  as  the  gift  of  a  lavish 
natui'e.  do  we  liml  the  highest  type  of  man.  The  nations  of 
(ailture  and  history  ha\e  inhaliited  the  middle  climate  where 
modei'ate  la'ior  and  foi'ethouglit  ha\e  been  rcwai'detl  hy  abun- 
dant harvests,  and  where  nalure  has  gradually  yielded  only 
hefoi-e  tlu'  unfolding  iiitclli'jcuce  of  man. 

1-^vcu  here  each  kind  of  lahor  has  gi'catly  inlluenced  the 
pi'oui'c^s  (if  its  fdllowers.  The  shcphei'd.  wandering  liithei- 
and  thithei-  in  >carch  of  t^dod  pa>turage.  could  have  no  lixed 
hahitatioii.  Ilis  social  tics  were  few.  llt>  could  not  dwell 
in  close  comnumitics.  ScliooU  and  chiwches  were  unknown. 
He  knew  no  law  luit  his  own  will.  Ilis  oci-iipation  awakened 
luit  little  in\-cntivc  u'cnius.  '  IlaviuLi.'  little,  if  anv.  comnuuii- 
eation  with  cixilizcd  nations,  his  pi'o^ress  was  slow.  Alone 
he  could  not  master  the  great  pi'oMems  of  cause  in  nature; 
and  tlic  my^tci'i(jus.  implviiiLi.'  \olition.  liecame  olijects  of 
woi'ship. 

Not  so.  however,  with  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  He  huilt  a 
pi-rmanciit  iiome.  ()lhcrs  scttlcil  about  him.  till  the  conumi- 
nity  grew  to  a  villau'c  and  pei'h.aiis  a  citv.  lli^  lahoi-  tended 
to  develop  steady  habits.  Agricullui-al  im|ilements  lightened 
his  woi'k.  and  invention  was  thus  encouraiied.     He  learned  to 


20  THE   CHILD  ANT)   NATUllE. 

respect  tlie  rights  of  others  ;  soeuil  ties  were  formed,  schools 
and  churches  estuhlished,  and  hiws  ])ecanie  a  necessity.  He 
exchanged  his  prodnce  with  other  nations,  and  learned  their 
customs  and  laws.  Tlie  early  imi)ulse  to  worship  the 
mystei'ious  was  gradually  developed  into  investigation  of 
causation.  \'olition  gave  place  to  law.  and  his  idols  gradu- 
ally dissolved  before  a  developing  intelligence,  and  the  dis- 
covery of  natural  cause  and  effect.  Knowledge  purided  his 
belief :  and  while  the  wandci'ing  tril^es  continued  in  their 
early  instincts,  customs  and  forms  of  worship,  he  rose 
rapidly  to  higher  and  higher  i)lanes  of  civilization. 

Thus  mankind  may  be  divided  into  great  classes  whose 
culture  varies  largely  with  the  demands  made  by  physical 
surroundings  ui)(>n  their  enei'gies. 

When  we  turn  from  geography  to  history,  we  find  that  the 
relief  of  the  glolx'  still  remains  a  very  imi)ortant  factoi'.  A 
glance  at  a  physical  map  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  must 
convince  any  thoughtful  person  that  (as  Ivitter  and  (iuyot 
have  ali'cady  shown)  the  gi'cat  migrations  which  have  taken 
place  fi'om  Central  Asia  into  Kurope  were  pi'cdestined  by 
the  relief  to  follow  two  lines  of  pi'ogression  and  settle- 
ment: the  one  to  spi-ead  over  the  gi'eal  grazing  [)lains  north 
of  the  mountain-a\'is  stretching  from  the  I'amir  Plateau  to 
Sj)ain,  the  other  to  occujjy  the  fei'tile  valleys  and  slopes 
south  of  it;  the  foi'mer  to  become  a  succession  of  incau'sions 
of  I)arbai'ous  sliephei'd  ti'ilies.  the  latter  tlie  sti'ady  invasion 
of  a  i'a|)idly  developiug  ciNibzatiou. 

History  has  long  recognized  the  stimulating  iulliiences 
which  these  advancing  cohimns  exercised  o\er  each  other, 
wherever  the  structure  opened  and  permitted  them  to  How 
to'j.'ethcr.      .Manv    times    were    the   enervated    nations   of   tlie 


TiiK  (;i.()i!i-:  i;i:iii:r. 


21 


South  inspirril  with  new  lit'i'  hy  tin*  hni'ilv  Noi'thmcii.  jint  ;is 
China  has  rfcfi\ nl  iN  stidimcst  iir(i;_iirs>i\ c  iiii[iuUi-s  from 
the  iiiciir>ioiis  of  thf  tld'cc  Tailar  IiUk's.  ami  iiioi'c  rccrnt 
coiitacl  with  wott'i'ii  nalioiis.  The  [lassrs  throU'^h  the  jihitcai: 
wall  hv  tlif  ('a>iiiai!  Sea.  across  the  i>laiiis  dI'  tlic  Daiiulic 
and  in  I-'iancc  wvir  the  scenes  of  the  i^i'ent  laee  conllicts  : 
anil  the  >ti'iiL;uie  ceased  onlv  wlien  North  and  South  were 
Meiideil  into  a  1  ii'ot liei'hood  ot'   nations. 

If  we  woiijil  know  wliv  liahviiMiia.  l'',L;\pt,  I'alestine, 
(ii'eece  and  Italv  iK'camc  the  >i'als  of  the  nio-l  powei^ful 
ein[Mi'es  of  antiiiuitv.  we  inii^t  >eel\'  our  an-wer  in  th"  plivsi- 
eal  sundumliiiLis  of  llio^e  lii>torii'  site-.  Aiicii'Ut  Uahvlonia 
may  he  con)[iare(l  to  a  \a--t  oasis,  .^o  comiileldy  i>  il  hemmed 
in  !iv  desert  jilateaus.  ( )u  the  ea>t  and  north,  lie  the  hari'en 
talih'dauijs  of  Persia  and  the  mountainous  di~tricl  of  KiU'- 
di>lan  :  on  the  we.-t  -inil  >outh.  the  ureal  Syi'ian  and  Araliian 
desei'ts.  Noiithei-  poltion  nf  all  W'esiriD  Asia  was.  ;il  that 
time.  >o  wi'll  adapteil  1  )y  nature  to  sni'iMJit  a  populous 
nation:  and  thus  tlii>  licnut  ifc!  \alhy  of  the  'Iduris  :iiid 
I'hi|)luates.  witli  its  mild  wintc|-s.  well-iniLialed  >oil  and  ex- 
traoidinarv  [trodnctive  ea|>ai-it  \\  \\itne>se(]  within  its  Iioi'ilei's 
the  I'i-c  of  ;it  Ica-t  three  •j:\\-[\\  em[>ires  i)efore  the  time  of 
it-^  coniiiic>t   liy  Alc\aiidc|-. 

AiKjthei' of  nature's  ureal  u'ai'den  spots  was  Ivuvpt.  "the 
Li'il'l  of  the  Nile."  The  fei'tile  >trip  which  lheri\ci-  ha--  >el 
{'it'c  from  the  ile--ci't.  Ii\'  its  animal  inundation  ic-ulliiiL;'  I'l'om 
the  raiid'all  in  the  highlands  of  e(|ii:iiori;d  AlVica.  i-  >hut  iu 
on  lioth  sides  liv  deseit--  and  mountains  :  while  il-  rich  delta 
lands  ;ire  in  lilvc  mariiici'  protected  tVnui  Asiatic  in\:i>iiin. 
'I'his  narrow  \allev.  only  aiuiut  li\'e  miles  in  width  and  li\c 
humlred  in  leu^lh.  not  oiilv  suppoited  a  deu-e  population 
within   its  own  eoiilines.    ituL  liy  a  sim[ile   pi-oce--  of   iniua- 


22  77/7-;   CHILD   AND    NATURE. 

tioii,  l)ec;inie  the  ^raiiaiy  of  tlie  civilized  world.  While 
Greece  was  yet  in  her  infancy,  and  many  centuries  l)efore 
Rome  ^Yas  founded,  this  wonderful  country  reached  the 
culmination  of  a  civilization  which,  in  many  res[)ects,  was 
never  surpassed  l)y  a  classic  nation. 

Turning  next  to  Palestine,  we  liud  another  narrow  tract 
lying  l)et\veen  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west;  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  Dead  8ea,  mountains  of  Gilead  and  Syrian 
desert,  on  the  east ;  the  desert  of  Paran  on  the  south  ;  and 
open  to  invasion  only  across  the  narrow  plains  in  the  north. 
The  great  fortress  which  nature  had  erected  al)out  the  home 
of  Christianity  and  the  Jewish  civilization  defeated  every 
attempt  of  the  invader  to  gain  footing  on  this  territory.  Xot 
until  Jewish  history  had  reached  its  most  splendid  period  in 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  and  civil  discord  had  rent  asunder  the 
once  magnificent  kingdom,  could  the  invading  IJaljylonians 
conquer  I'alestine,  destro}' the  '■  Sacred  City,"  and  lead  awa\' 
its  inhabitants  into  captivity. 

In  no  other  country  has  the  relief  exerted  a  more  marked 
intluence  over  its  i)eople  than  in  ancient  (rreece.  Asia  and 
Africa  afford  examples  of  wide-spread  civilizations  conform- 
ing to  the  vastness  of  the  structure  of  tlieir  great  natural 
regions.  r>ut  Greece  is  tlu;  type  of  variet}'.  P>y  the  nnitual 
influences  of  its  i)arts,  it  was  cual)led  to  rise  far  above  the 
obelisk  civilizations  of  J'>gypt  and  China.  Tlie  Pindus  range, 
with  its  many  si)urs  sending  their  small  peninsular  headlands 
far  out  into  the  sea.  and  even  continuing  in  the  form  of 
islands  to  the  coast  of  .Vsia  IMinoi',  ga\'e  to  tliis  beautiful 
land,  made  almost  sncrcd  liy  its  history,  an  intci'nal  structure 
fav(jring  the  formati<jn  (;f  many  indei)t'ndcnt  states  with 
difTereut  (uistoms.  laws,  dialects  etc.  ;  also  a  coast  line  en- 
abling it  to  talvc  advantage  of  its  location  in  the  middle  of 


77/ A'    HLOliE    RELIEF. 


•23 


the  tlu'ii  civilized  world,  to  develop  the  eoniuiereial  inter- 
course which  brouuht  to  its  shores  not  onh'  the  wenlth  of 
\\\v  more  ancient  kingdoms,  hut  also  tlic  culture  of  all  the 
precedinn'  centui-ics. 

(J recce  tlius  liccame  the  type  of  later  European  history, 
not  alone  in  its  entirety,  but  likewise  in  the  de\elopnu'nt  of 
sucli  states  as  Sp;iin.  Austria  and  (iermany.  Moi'cover,  its 
sti'iicturc  |)rotecte<l  it  from  the  inva.sion  of  Xorthern  tribes 
and  Asiatic  hordes,  except  throuiih  the  nai'i'ow  [)asses  by 
Blount  Olymixis  and  Tliermo[)yl;e  which  were  easily  de- 
fendetl.  Not  until  civil  dissension  had  severed  the  l)onds 
of  uni(/n  l>etween  the  little  sister  states,  did  this  civilization, 
which  had  withstood  the  i)ressure  of  the  whole  Eastern  world, 
fall  an  easy  victim  to  into'ual  decay.  Then  the  hardy  (iauls, 
pressiiiL!,-  across  the  |)lains  of  the  Danube  and  throuu'h  the 
mountain  passes,  destroyed  the  city  which  both  Ne|)tune  and 
Miner\a  claimed.  Iiut  which  liecame  the  rich  inheritance  of 
the   whole  world. 

It  is  not  necessai-y  to  nmlti|)ly  I'xamples.  The  mere  men- 
tion of  Roiiu  will  sullice  to  recall  the  protection  atforded 
Italy  liy  the  Alps.  Not  until  tlu'  K'uions  in  their  couiiuests 
had  pointe(l  out  the  hiuhway  of  invasion  to  their  barbarous 
foe.  and  not  until  the  seeds  of  diss(jlution  had  been  sown  in 
hori'iliU'  licentiousness  and  ci\'il  strit"c.  could  the  hardy  tribes 
of  the  North.  I'eti-aeinLi'  the  fo()tstci)s  of  their  oppressors, 
sack  tiie  ••  l'",ternal  Citv." 

Likewise  the  southern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
western  coast  of  Arabia,  each  i)i'otectcd  bv  its  sea  and  desert 
plateau  ;  India,  cut  off  fi'om  the  wanderinu'  tril)t's  liy  its 
surroundinu'  structure,  vet  containini!,'  within  its  bounds  the 
variety  essential  to  ilexclopment  .  ("liina  whose  empire  in 
itself    resi'inbles   an   almost    isolated   continent:    Mexico   and 


24  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Peru  ill  their  plateau  fortresses,  —  eacli  has  bequeathed  to  the 
world  a  share  of  the  culture  of  to-day,  bearing  the  impress  of 
the  many  characteristic  physical  features  of  its  centre  of  origin. 

What  an  important  part  the  Pyrenees  and  Balkan  Moun- 
tains have  performed  in  the  religious  and  intellectual  de- 
\'elopment  of  Europe !  When  tlie  Mohammedan  invasion 
through  Spain  threatened  to  flood  all  Christendom  with  the 
'•  religion  of  the  sword,"  and  the  crescent  went  down  before 
the  cross  at  Tours,  the  Pyrenees  became  the  natural  boun- 
dary for  at  least  three  centuries  between  the  Franlvs  and 
Saracens.  Nor  were  they  finally  separated  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean till  the  year  that  marks  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus 
to  America.  The  culture  of  South-western  Europe  received 
powerful  stimulus  from  the  arts  and  sciences  of  these  learned 
Moors,  but  the  mountains  saved  Christendom  from  their 
religious  oi)pression. 

History  is,  in  part,  repeating  these  events  around  the 
Balkan  range.  Already  has  tlie  Mohammedan  invasion  from 
the  East  been  turned  back  from  Austria  by  Sobicski ;  and 
althougii  the  mountain-fortress  of  the  Balkans  has  been  a 
natural  boundary  bet\veen  the  'J'urks  and  their  Christian  foe. 
the  pressure  of  a  Iiigher  civilization  is  steadily  forcing  the 
alien  (  ?)  religion  from  European  soil ;  for  even  in  our  day 
tlie  golden  rule  of  state  diplomacy  is.  *"  Miglit  makes  right," 
when  territorial  a('(piisition  is  the  reward. 

Turning  from  exain[)les  of  national  progress  to  the  impor- 
tant ])attles  tliat  liave  [)er]iaps  deci(le(l  the  fates  of  nations, 
we  cannot  fail  to  agree  that  tlie  structui'c  of  eacli  of  the 
greiit  scenes  of  confiict  lias  very  often  determined  tlie  result. 
Miltiades  recognized  this  when  he  toolc  ])()ssessioii  of  the  little 
plnb'nu  overlooking  the  crescent-sluiped  valley  of  Marathon  ; 
and  so  also  did  Leonidas  when  he  posted  his  men  in  the  l\iss 


TIIK    Cl.ni'.F.    IlKLIKF. 


of  'rii('i'iii<)[)ylM'.  The  trrrilih'  ra\incs  in  wliidi  the  K'oinnii 
Ic-idiis  under  \';ini^  wri'i'  ;uniiliilutc<l  :  tlif  lii^lilcii  Liully 
that  o[)t.'nLMl  uiiilcr  till'  l-jnpt-ior's  L^uariU  at  Waterloo:  liuii- 
kei-  Hill.  J>iltle  Ivoiunl  Top  and  Ceuieteiy  Hill  are  other 
faniilitir  ilhi>ti'ation>. 

The  lleUciians  in  their  iiioimiain-honie  wei'e  in\  ineihle  : 
hut  when  thev  <lesceli( Um I  ti>  the  [ilain-.  tiiev  were  iiuieklv 
t'ori't-'l  to  yieM  hefore  (';esar">  le^iidUs.  The  \\'el>h  of  to-(hiy 
owe  the  [irescrvation  of  their  laiiLiuaLit'  and  (a;-t'iiii^  to  the 
mountains  of  their  countrv.  'I'lie  hiuiihiniK  ^A'  Seotland 
sheltere*!  a  free  iieo[ile  for  a  lon'j,'  time  aftia'  the  lowhimls 
had  jiasscil  under  the  y^ke.  How  iiaieh  of  hhiLilish  and 
Seotti.-h  hi->t->ry  i/entres  ahont  the  Cheviot  HilN  :  The  'jlwaX 
natural  hiiihwav  lielween  C'anad;i  and  New  York  tUa-idetl  the 
|ilan  ol'  iiie  eami);ii'_;'n  that  ended  in  the  surreUilei'  of  liur- 
Uoyne  :  :ind  the  >truetui'e  ol'  the  State<  lyin^  ea-t  of  the 
.M  i»is-i|i[ii  !Ji\  er  detei'mined  the  three  L^reat  liiie^  of  inva- 
>ion  of  the  South  during  the  late  (  i\il  War. 

How  neei'ssar\'.   then,  to  the  intelii'ient   slud\'  of   hi-torv  is 

a  knowledge  ot'  the  Lit'Iiera!  t'ealnro  i^i  relief  of  the  earth's 
>urfaee  which  ha\-e  u'reativ  in'Iuenefil  tlic  inoMMuents  of 
nations.  Not  t-iily  an'  they  the  lie>t  iio>>i!i!e  aid  to  the 
memoi'V  of  llio^c  e\fnl-.  hut  lieeause  of  theii-  inihhMiee  they 
also  lieeoine  an  e--ential  element  in  the  [>hilo>ophy  of 
hisiory. 


26  TUE   (JlllLl)   AS  J)   MATURE. 


PART    I. 
ciiAPrEii  in. 

SAND     MODELLING     IN     ELEMENTARY    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  stu(]y  of  relief  luis  given  i  ise  to  inaiiy  de\ices  for 
aiding  tlie  iniuginution  to  pieture  the  surfaces  of  tlie  conti- 
nents. ]Maps  made  of  papier-niaclie,  layers  of  cardboard  or 
leather,  stani[)ed  paper,  carved  wood,  putt}',  clay,  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  various  glue  and  whiting  mixtures  have  been  used 
with  success  ;  but  the  device  l)est  known  and  most  exten- 
sively used  is  xavd  modelling.  'Die  excellent  results  obtained 
from  tliis  natural  language  of  form  seem  to  insure  its  general 
ado[)tion.  l>cfore  discussing  its  practical  value  in  the  school- 
room, it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  laws  that  condition  the 
development  of  form  pei'ce[)tion. 

Although  [jsychologists  and  physiologists  may  differ  widely 
as  to  the  i)ercc|)tion  of  extension  oi-  the  lirst  and  second 
dimensions,  l»y  siglit,  binocuhir  A'ision.  touch,  or  the  muscular 
sense,  they  agi'ce  that  the  original  sense  of  solid  form  or 
the  third  (biiicnsion  is  tou<-]i  oi'  I'alher  the  muscular  sense 
of  grasp,  just  ;is  that  of  coloi-  is  siLi'ht.  and  of  sound,  lu'ar- 
iug.     ^:'eusalious  of  rouglmess,  sharpness,  roundness,   surface 


SAM)    MOhKLLlXC. 


•21 


>U>\>r.  i\'\\r\'  ;;iiil  tile  likf  :u\;  ()eca>ioiicil  Iiy  loiicli  pi'iiiiai'ily. 
l)iil  i'roni  carlv  i-hildlioixl.  in  sci'iim-  ami  tV'cliii'j,  olijcris  al 
till'  same  time.  \\r  haw  K-aiiu.-il  Id  a>>(ii-iaU'  the  liuiiL  aii'i 
shade  iici'cci\  f<l  iipnii  an  object  with  tlie  >i'iisatiuii  of  tdiicli. 
aiiil  thus  ariiuireil  the  raciilty  of  juiliiinu'  of  form  liy  siiilii. 
For  fxamiilf.  we  feel  carefully  tlie  ■-urfaee  of  a  liall.  oeca>iiiii~ 
iliU'  ihe  >eii->atioii  of  roumliiess.  At  the  >ame  time,  we  [ht- 
eeive  the  urailua!  Iileiwliii2'  of  liLiiit  ami  >haile  uiioii  the 
siirfaee.  The  tnueli  sensation  is  a->oeiateil  willi  that  of 
siuht.  >o  that  either  may  readily  recall  the  other:  and  a 
similar  liu'ht  and  >hade  i)eri-ei\cd  cUewhere  may  su^uest  the 
sensation  of  roimdiic^s. 

In  the  >ami>  manni^r.  a  nniform  shade  may  lie  a>>ociated 
with  a  llat  >iirracc  :  and  a  sudden  cha!iL;c  of  >liadc,  with  a 
sharp  ed>_;c.  'I'liu-^  we  aci|uire  the  capacity  lo  C(i'^ni/.e  solid 
loi'm.  Ill' the  tiiird  dimen>i(jn.  through  the  mciliuni  m'  >iLiht  : 
or.  to  -tatc  ii  nioi'c  clearlv.  the  natural  liiiht  and  -hade  upon 
an  olijci-t  ena'ile  u<  to  juflLie  its  form.  In  fact,  after  >nlli- 
cicllt  expcricnee.  the  cve  :dMlo-t  displaces  the  hand  a>  the 
oi''_;an  of  toiai  pei-cept ion.  and  tin'  mind  nncoii>-cion-lv  iiiter- 
pret>  >iL;!it  percept-^  a->  form  pei'ecpts.  In  matters  of  dou'i'. 
ho\ve\'cr.  a->  to  ^-l  ilidit  V.  We  inxariaMv  contii'm  our  judL^ineiit 
liy  the  original  >en-.e  i,\'  loiieh.  The  aeip;inMl  >en<e  niay  1m' 
(lecei\-ed.  i'Ut  the  oii'^inal  iicxci'  er!'<.  A  [lainted  di-k  ma\' 
lepre-eiit  to  the  eve  a  liall  or  an  oranue.  luit  to  the  haml  it 
mn>l  rcN'cal  its  llatne>s. 

And  yet  the  ac(|niird  >en-e  i-.  ot'  far  urcatei-  practical 
\aluethan  the  pi-imarv.  i'>\  it  \vc  can  di'-ecin  t'orn.s  near 
liy  or  at  i;reat  distance,  in  i-a|!id  >uccr-~-.ion  and  tmiltiple 
comliinatioiis.  without  '^oiiiu'  thi'ouuh  the  -low  and  hdiorion- 
proce-s  of  tonch.  ilut  the  aceiiraev  and  \alue  .i!'  tlic  sIliIiI 
ill    pereei\  inu    form    depend-    u|ion    the    di-t  in^t  n.--    of    the 


28  77/7';   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

sense  products  of  sight  and  of  the  muscular  sense,  and  the 
consequent  clearness  of  the  association  of  these  products. 
This  necessitates  tlie  education  of  touch  and  sight  simultn- 
neously.  The  hand  and  eye  must  worlv  togetlier  in  order  tliat 
the  sensations  may  become  parts  of  the  same  mental  state. 
Each  of  the  parts. thus  associated  will  ever  after  tend  to 
suggest  the  other.  Moreover,  knowledge  of  a  form  is  more 
quickly  acquired  hy  [jerceiving  it  with  two  senses  at  the 
same  time,  for  each  is  vei'ifying  and  recalling  the  sensations 
of  the  other,  tlms  making  the  knowledge  more  certain.  At 
the  same  time,  the  sensation  of  light  and  shade  is  becoming 
ever  more  closely  associated  with  its  corresponding  touch 
sensation,  making  the  acquired  sense  of  sight  more  accurate 
and  useful. 

A  necessary  condition  in  the  acquirement  of  distinct  sense 
products  is  repetition  and  intensity  of  perception.  In  the 
rapid  piny  of  any  sense,  e.g.,  sight,  it  rests  but  a  moment 
upon  a  form,  and  then  seeks  iinother  unless  some  stimulus 
holds  it  to  a  particuhir  form.  This  may  be  natural  curiosity 
CT  a  supplied  requirement.  In  order  to  rivet  the  attention 
closely  upon  a  bird,  we  ask  the  i)upils  to  describe  it,  thus 
supplying  the  incitement  wliicli  necessitates  many  acts  of 
perception  of  this  particular  object.  An  accurate  description 
implies  clearness  or  intensity  of  percei)ti{)n. 

Again,  we  ask  tliem  to  drav/  the  bird,  and  l)y  this  means 
direct  the  mental  activity  to  the  relative  lengths  and  direc- 
tions of  portions  of  its  outline.  Uut  to  requii-c  a  class  to 
model  a  bird  in  any  material  insures  a  closeness  and  repeti- 
tion of  perception  attainable  by  no  other  devire,  inasmuch 
as  it  calls  foi  the  reprotbiction  of  the  exact  form  and  outline 
in  detail,  and  bi-ings  both  sight  'unl  touch  into  aeti\ity  at  the 
same  time.     The  modelling  or  rei)ro(lucing  is  in  itself  merely 


SAX  I)    MODKLLiyC 


•>;i 


r-xpiX's^ingr  what  i«;  already  in  the  niiii'l;  iuit  l>y  coiwtanlly 
>liiiiulatiiiij;  siulit  and  lourh  to  pei-euiw.'  the  [)L'rtcct  olijcct.  il 
convets  and  adds  to  the  conecpt. 

This  leads  us  to  the  lirst  u>e  of  sand  niodelliim'  in  teaehiii'^' 
the  land  and  water  forms.  It  is  a  means  of  >timulatin'j,-  the 
attention,  or  of  secnrinu'  elosc  and  rei'eated  acts  of  percep- 
tion of  forms  in  nature,  thus  enalilinix  pu[)ils  to  olit.iin 
aeeiu'ate  knowlediie  of  the  elementary  forms,  in  the  shortest 
po>-iliU-  lime.  Tlie  little  models  in  sand  lieeome  a  laniiuaLit- 
111-  means  liy  whieli  the  teacher  may  aid  the  pupiU  to  lii'inu' 
most  \i\idly  inlw  eon<ciou<ne<s.  witli  least  effoiL  any  I'orni'^ 
to  lie  comiiarcd.  or  u[)on  whieh  a  force  like  runninu'  water 
is  to  tie  set  lo  \v(irl<.  Later,  it  may  lie  u>ed  ;i^  a  means  of 
aiilinii.'  to  ima-ine  or  rt'ad  the  surfaces  of  tiie  continents.  .Vs 
the  forms  in  >and  are  a  natinal  lanuiKeje.  perfectly  symluilie. 
an_\  child  can  m<ide!  the  L:eoL:'ia[iliical  forms  {){  which  he  has 
distinct  mental  pictures.  Hence,  to  the  teacher,  modclliim 
liecomes  ;in  excellent  means  d!'  examining'  the  t'oi'ins  in  the 
child"-  mind,  whether  ihev  lie  simple  hills  and  vallevs,  dr 
the  nioi'e  ciimplicaled  fnims  o|'  continents.  Here  no  lack 
of  tecl.uiieal  tiaiiiihi^  in  laniiuaue  hinder>  the  full  and  fr^'C 
expre->i(in  of  thiiu_;ht.  and  nn  time  is  rcipiircd  to  mem(;)ri/.e 
symliols. 

'I'll"  ni(.iildinu'  sau'l  has  heen  criticised  as  jii-esentine;  life- 
less ;ind  minute  forms  in  place  oi'  the  ;'e;il  foinis  of  nature 
leeininu  wUli  life.  'I'lie  criticism  --li<iuld  not  stand  auain-t 
the  de\icc.  in.it  a:^ain--t  one  manner  of  u-inu'  it.  In  ;^e(i::- 
raphy.  as  in  othei'  studies,  we  mav  lind  teachers  who  ai'c 
teaehin'^  the  lanuuaue  ol'  the  thiiiLi'  instead  ol'  the  thinu'  it-elf. 
ModelliiiLi-  is  merelv  a  lanuuaLie  of  natural  forms,  and  any 
one  who  attempts  to  teiicji  iiatuie  thriiu:.:li  its  -vmlmls  com- 
luit?   a    radical   errnr.      The   saml   should    Udt     In'    u-ed    ,■!>    a 


no  THE   (Jin LI)   AM)   yATUUK. 

iiicniis  of  in'c^sontinii'  hut  of  rcpi'cseiitiiig  tlie  forms  of  kind 
and  water  to  })npils.  Wo  shovld  tench  directhi  from  nature 
which  is  everywhere  present,  and  use  the  sand  luerely  to  stim- 
idate  perception  of  the  realiti/  hy  I'cquiring  its  reproduction  l)y 
modelling.  Tlien,  lilce  an}-  other  hmguage,  it  may  be  used 
to  recall  th(!  concei)ts  of  tliese  foi'UJS  in  new  relations  when 
a  foreign  land  is  to  l)c  imagined.  The  child's  ideas  should 
come  from  the  held,  the  forest,  the  rivei',  and  will  then  have 
the  size,  coloring  and  life  of  nature,  unless  tlie  teacher  tries 
to  supplant  the  thing  itself  by  a  mere  language. 

Pictures  and  stories  should  also  l)e  used  as  a  means  of 
leading  out  to  observe  the  real  forms.  Ihit  whether  as  a 
means  of  securing  attention,  or  of  aiding  the  imagination 
of  distant  forms,  the  langua<:e  of  sand  has  this  great  advan- 
tage :  viz..  its  signs  are  tyi)es  i)f  the  foi'ms  to  l)e  re[)resented 
or  imagined  ;  and  the  attempt  to  re[)roduce  is  the  best  pos- 
sible incitement  to  ol»servation  of  tlie  natural  forms. 

The  teachci-  may  fall  into  some  eri'ors  in  modelling,  just 
as  in  using  any  other  device.  Tln're  comes  a  time  when  its 
furthei-  use  nnist  hinder  rathei'  than  aid  the  development  of 
the  imagination.  The  time  is  clearly  indicated  bv  a  state 
of  the  mind,  so  that  the  ei'ror  may  be  easily  avoitled.  As 
soon  as  the  liupils  can  recall  the  natural  forms  distinctly 
witluMit  the  assistance  of  the  mouhh'd  forms,  they  should 
lie  iHHpiii'cd  to  use  the  imagination,  and  the  sand  should  l)e 
laid  aside.  .lust  as  in  t<'aehing  niniiber.  we  put  awav  the 
objects  as  soon  as  tliey  can  think  lunubers  without  them  ; 
and  as  in  teaching  reading,  the  objects  used  ;it  first  to  aid 
in  making  th(>  association  bclween  the  words  and  their 
appi'opi'inte  ideas  are  dispensed  with  as  soon  as  the  names 
will  i-ccall  the  ideas  with  sulllcient  distmctuess  :  so  we  give 
up  tli(!   modi'lling   as   soon  as    puiiils   have   clear   concepts   of 


SA.\  h    M<)I)F.l.LL\(. 


81 


forms,  and  can  imagine  tlicin  in  new  rflatinns  witiioiit  iis 
aiil.  .Vliility  to  model  all  the  I'ornis  aeeiuati'ly  and  (inirkly 
from  memoi'V  may  lie  made  the  te-t  of  di-liiicl  (•on(H>i)ts.  pro- 
vided the  eliildiiai  have  learned  llie  foini-  from  natui'C. 

After  the  foiins  ai'e  known.  ImweXHa'.  if  a  Ie>-on  is  to  Ik' 
Li'iven  in  wliieh  form  is  secondary  to  some  other  suliject  of 
the  work,  the  >and  may  auain  I'c  u<eil  to  ailvantaii'o  as  a 
niean^  of  aidiiiLi'  the  imauination.  and  of  siManinii,"  atttaititjii 
to  the  I'eal  olijeet  of  the  le>son.  'J'lm^  we  may  wi>h  to  rep- 
resent the  weariiiLL'  of  water  upon  a  >lo[ie.  'I'he  pupils  know 
the  form,  and  can  modtd  it  I'eadily.  Nevertheles-^.  as  uur 
primarv  oliject  i<  to  teach  the'  Aveai'inu'  of  water,  we  maki' 
the  slope  in  sand,  and  pour  the  water  ii[>on  it  tis  a  means 
of  ineitinLi'  them  to  olKer\'e  the  effect  of  a  force  upon  a  form. 

Auain.  if  we  are  readiirj,'  aliout  the  camel,  wc  model  a 
desert  to  aid  the  mind  in  ;;--oei;il iiiLi'  the  animal  with  its 
home.  In  tcachiiiLi'  a  lialtle.  e.u'..  llunkia'  Hill,  we  model 
th''  hills  and  harlior  1o  ai'l  in  [lieturiu'.:,'  tlie  i'elati\e'  [Mi<ition 
of  the  couteiidinu'  armies.  ;ind  the  natui'al  ad\anta::es  which 
the    sti-uctiu'e    afforded    the    Anieiiean-.      This    is   analou'ous 

to     U-^inu'     the     lijoek^     oi'    other    ol'jeets     to     ;iid     [lUpiU    to    see 

relations  or  c  iiiilii  ii in-  in  pr<i'ilems  in  arilhme'ic.  even  thouiih 
th(,'  num'iei'^  tliem-el\-e<  are  known.  No!  miml>ei's  them-idves. 
hut  the  condilii  III-,  (if  .-I  liii-iness  1  lan-aei  ion.  aie  to  lie  {\\\\<. 
vividly  porti'ayed.  'i'liat  i<.  allhou-h  in  tlu'  -tudy<if  forins 
the  sand  -houM  lie  laiil  a-ide  a-<  -oou  a-  the  imaiiinat  ion  can 
pictui'e  di-tiie-tlv  without  il.  \'i-t  when  ihe  m:iiii  olijeet  of  the 
lesson  is  to  oli-ei'\-e  the  elfect  ^<^  a  force  or  any  thiiiLi'  I'claleil 
to  a  particulai-  foim.  the  >and  should  a'^aiu  lie  u>ed  as  the 
means  liv  which  the  forms  nia\'  lie  iiio-i  \i\i.iiv  ree:illed 
with  the  least  mental  elfort.  thus  settiu--  t'r'  mind  free  to 
coui-enti'ale  its  full  powiu'  upon  the  -.tud\   of   lehitions. 


32  THE   CniLD   A  XI)   NATURE. 

Every  Seylla  luis  her  Ciuirybdis.  AVliile  tryiiii!;  to  avoid 
the  over-use  of  sand,  great  cai'e  sliouhl  be  exercised  never  to 
require  a  child  to  reproduce  a  form  tliat  is  not  distinct  in  his 
niind,  unless  the  I'cal  form  is  near  by  for  comparison.  Xo 
good  can  come  from  such  rei)ro(]ucti()n,  while  evil  results 
may  attend  it.  'I'iie  imperfections  will  be  more  llrmly  fixed 
in  memory,  and  the  cliild  will  be  forced  to  a  false  and  care- 
less habit  of  expression.  The  same  danger  exists  in  teach- 
ing other  subjects.  A\'c  should  not  require  him  to  speak  or 
write  a  sentence  until  the  thought  stinuilates  it.  In  teaching 
spelling,  if  he  is  not  sure  that  he  can  writt'  a  word  correctly, 
set  a  copy  or  send  him  to  the  dictionary.  The  attempt  to 
reproduce  in  any  nuumer,  without  a.  copy,  that  which  is  vague 
in  the  mind,  develops  a  hahit  of  hesitancy,  and  as  a  natural 
out-growth,  carelessness  that  no  am(.)unt  of  training  can 
conq)lett'ly  eradicate.  Herein  is  the  economy  of  giving  the 
early  modelling  exei'cises  in  the  fields  where  nature  sujiplies 
an  endless  variety  of  forms  foi'  study  and  com[)arisoii. 

Another  and  perhaps  the  chief  error  consists  in  fiying  to 
use  the  sand  in  the  phun-  of  unture.  \Ve  should  gu;ird  vcu'v 
carefully  against  this.  Let  tlu;  (h'viiH.^  merely  incite  inten'st 
in  the  reality.  Pupils  should  not  study  the  objects  in,  the 
sand,  but  IhrniKj],  it.  l^'jll  the  min<l  with  forms  in  nature  of 
which  the  models  ;ii'e  but  signs,  nnd  thus  pi'cpare  them  to  see 
the  whole  woi'ld  in  tlie  school  district. 

One  device  should  not  bike  tlie  plnee  of  othei's.  l)ut  should 
only  sup[)h'inent.  them.  Ivieli  h.-is  its  vnlne  in  nrousiiig  cer- 
t.'iin  :iclivities  :  ;ind  sket<'hing.  ]);iinling.  reading,  describing, 
pictures  etc..  nil  h;ive  work  lo  [x'l'foi'm. 

The  sj)e''i;il  ;i  pplicnt  ion  of  s;ui(l  i  iiodellin'j  to  the  various 
sulijects  will  be  shown  in  the  ■•  I  llusl  r;it  i\-e  Lessons." 


^AMj    M(il)KLLI.\(i. 


3:i 


SIMM. tin. 

1.  Modrlliim'  is  ;i  inciUis  ol'  ^ainiliL;'  roiiccpts  of  t'l.iiii 
tlii'oU'jii  ti'iich  or  ihc  iiiusculai-  si'iisc  ;  and.  !iy  llu-  a><i>ciat,  imi 

(if    liir-f   r(il|i-('Jit>    willl     the   (■(irrc>p(>l|.lilli:     -'iLlhl      pr'nlucN     dt 

liLilil  and  -liadi'.  of  cul'Livatiug' the  ar(|uircil  judLiiiiciit  <if  form 
l.y  si-i,t. 

'J.  It  is  tilt*  lu'st  (lr\"ir('  for  st'(;ni'iii'j  atlciitioii  or  rc'iioatcd 
ads  tif  |)ci'<T[)tion.  and  thus  d^'Xi-lop- (li.-i  r\  all.  in  and  inmiorv 
ot  form. 

'■J.  It  is  the  :-iiu[)li'sl  and  (|uirkc>t  nn-in-  of  Icadiii'^  pupils 
to  ;u;«iuirt'  knowli'dut- of   u<'o:_^ra[iliical  lurins  'Voni  naluit'. 

t.  It  is  tlic  means  of  lirinLiiii'-i'  i'oinis  nii'-l  \'i\idi\  into  cm- 
.>ciou>nc>-.  and  so  CO  lid  it  ions  ;i  cell  rah'  com  pari -on.  rca-onin'.:. 
and  iudunicni . 

.">.  It  la_v>  llic  lia--is  in  a  natural  laiiuuauc  fmlcadinu,'  [iu|iil^ 
to  imauiiK'  till'  coiitiiiciii-. 

t!.  It  !-  tlic  nii)-t  natural  mean- of  !'(irm  examination,  a- 
aliilitv  to  iiMdel  (|uii-klv  and  aei-ur:ilel\-  from   iiiemnry  may  lie 

aeee[ited   a>   e\i'lenee   iif   clear   e<.ncep!s. 

7.  Lay  a>ide  I  lie  >and  a^  -oun  a>  |iupil>  can  leadily  imaLiiiie 
without  it-  aid. 

•">.  'I'lie  -and  mav  aiiain  !ii>  u-ed  when  the  n;ain  ohject  of 
the  lesson  i-  to  -iiidv  the  relations  ot'  one  form  t<i  other,-,  oi- 
of   a  foi'ce  to  a  li  iini. 

'.'.    I'ntil  till'  [oiiii  i^  di-tiiiet   in  the  pupir<  mind,  he  -hi-uld 

ne\er  he   reijuil'dl   t(i   model    it.    nnle<-   the   real   oliject    or  a   co|- 
reef  tviie  of   it  is  near  li\'  lo|-  c(im|'ari-i  in. 

111.  In  hvirninu  out  iiiie-.  u-e  drauiii:^':  in  .^tndyiii:;  relief 
or  ^url'ace  sloiie.  u-e  mm  ieilinii'. 


o-t  THE   C'lIILT)   AND  NATURE. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

PRIMARY  LESSONS. -FIRST  TWO  YEARS. 

'J'riE  study  of  geography  begins  as  soon  as  the  senses  are 
awakened  to  nature.  The  delight  tliat  the  little  ones  take  in 
gathering  pretty  objects  is  the  capital  for  the  teacher's  work. 
IIow  interested  they  are  in  bright-colored  flowers,  insects, 
l)irds  and  pretty  pebbles  wliich  cover  the  first  few  pages  of 
tlie  wonderful  book  of  nature  !  How  they  enjoy  its  bright 
pictures  and  pretty  stories  !  and  when  they  enter  school  after 
a  few  years  of  freedom,  the  chief  work  of  the  teacher  is  to 
deepen  and  broaden  this  interest.  Tlieir  tender  minds  are  not 
yet  ready  to  l)e  harnessed  to  an  iiiflexi1)le  course  of  study. 
Tliey  must  be  gently  and  gradually  trained  to  habits  of  con- 
secutive; work. 

Play  is  the  natural  device  for  develoi)ing  little  children,  and 
should  be  encouraged  till  tliey  grow  away  from  it.  Let  tiiem 
l)lay  with  nature,  and  it  remains  their  friend  and  teacher 
instead  of  Ix'coming  their  taskmaster.  If  they  cannot  go  out 
into  tlie  fields  to  study,  let  them  bring  in  the  i)retty  leaves, 
})cbbles  etc.,  and  use  these  little  gifts,  when  possil)le.  in  oral 
language,  drawing,  rc^ading  and  number  lessons. 

sAyn-TAm.K. 

Let  the  pupils  have  a  large  sand-tal)le  ui)on  which  to  play. 
]\L)(h'lling  is  tlie  simplest  means  of  expressing  form,  and 
ii;ituinlly  preeecles  drawing.      The  same  delight  that  children 


/ 7 /,'>•/•  yiro   Yi:.\n<. 


'like  ill  (lii:L:iiiu  -:inii  Ky  the  stM-lmi  r.  di  ill  iiiakiiiu  ••uiuil- 
pif^."  iiiMV  lu'  iii.-ulc  a  iiicaii~;  d!'  iiiciilal  Lirnwth  in  llic  scIkihI- 
rnoin.  a>  it  has  ali'i'aily  luiii  in  nature.  In  tlu'  dry  or 
>li:j.Iitly  iiiMi>iciiriI  licacli-saiii!.  tliry  will  niakt'  liilU.  valley-. 
rnaiN.    lidu-e-^.    I'ann-;.    I'iver-^.  jMiml-  (le.      With   linle   strii^s 

(if  uaxp'l  or  -['lint-,  thev  will  put  ill  felU'e-.  liliilucs  uii  I 
trees.       'J'ell  (ir  I'ea'l   to  tiieln   -illl}ile  i  le-el  i] 't  i\'e  >ti>ries.  allow- 

iiiiz- them  te)  make  the  iiielin'es  in  the  >aiii!.  ami  draw  iiiidu 
the  lijaeklioard  <ir  j'aper  what    they  iiiimIcI.      I-Jfi  r'l  nffinijii  f'j 

Try  to  :i[iiM'e<-iate  the  l.e-t  elVnit  (if  liie  chiM.  hdwever  im- 
jiert'eet  the  re-llll  may  he.  Hi-  eoiic^p;-  ot'  I'drm  ;ire  not 
i|i-tinet.  neither  i-  hi-  -kill  to  ex[ire--  iK'\-eIope(l  :   and  herein 

lies    tile    ojijiorilinity    for    Lll-oWlil.        He   i-    nnt    eoll-eiou<  of    his 

-liorteo!iiiii'_^x.  '['he  [lieliire  or  moih-l  aji] iroximate-  hi-  ideal, 
and  he  i-  tiieiefoir  no'i  a-haiiK'd  of  jii^  woii\.  hut  i-  ready  to 
Irv  ;e.:ain  and  aiialn.      Now  let  -Ixiil  to  expre--  keep  [laee  with 

the  eolieept    'jroNVlil.    alld     he    will    deli-li!     io   pieture     to    otliel- 

what  he  ha-  in  mind.      I  )e\'e!op:iiriit   of   -Isill    in    aiiv  form  o!' 

(■X[ire--ion  ini['lie-  eolleelltratio'l!  upon  an  o'ljeei  of  thoiiLi'ht: 
i.e..    >;,;//   rr-,irts  !<,   inr,,]-,  ,,    lj,,,n.ihf. 

To  the  child,  the  lillle  form-  ill  sand  are  picture-  in  nature 
ju-t  as  the  hinid.h-  ,A  i;e_-  i-  a  I'eautiful  d.oll.  'I'iie  ima'^ina- 
tiou  leadiiy  -uiiplie-  w  hal  i-  v>  aiilinu'  in  -i/e  and  eulor.  lieeau-e 
the  little  mo(l(a  is  only  a  -iLin  of  the  e(.nee[it  gained  from 
nature.  'I'he  faet  that  Ihi-  powrr  of  the  mind  is  exei'ei-ed  i- 
tlie  leal  -oure.  ■  oi'  hi-  deli- ill.  f.  .r  a  to\  -,,  p.-i  I'eet  ijial  nothing- 
is  U^ft  to  tlir  iiuauiliatioii  i-  -ooii  ea-t  a-ide.  It  i-  not  the  iiad 
hut  the  ■■•  play  ■■  hoi-,,  tliat  plea-.-.  Ih'will  call  tiie  little 
pile  of  -and  a  hill,  tlie  little  hollow  a  \alley.  and  will  tiiink  of 
them  a-  -ueli  unle-s  the  teaeher  I'leak-  into  tlii-  Leautifiil 
ima'^ina.rv  world,  and  maix'--,  hlin  c,  .n-ciou-  of  it-  di  ;i.-i,ai,-ir- 


86  THE   CHILI)   ANT)   N A  TUBE. 

Let  the  acts  of  asso(;i;ition  between  tlie  forms  in  nature 
and  their  signs  in  sand  be,  in  so  far  as  is  possible,  uncon- 
scious ;  i.e..  let  the  child  select,  as  he  naturally  will,  th5  little 
rein-esentatioris  or  niodt'ls.  lie  will  then  associate  the  signs 
with  his  ideas,  and  thus  prepare  a  natural  language  of  his 
concepts  which  may  be  afterwards  used  by  the  teacher  to 
aid  him  in  imagining  the  relief  and  life  of  foreign  lands, 

(LAY  MODELLING. 

Potter's  clay  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  in  training 
the  child  to  perceive  and  reproduce  form.  ^lodclling  ap])lcs. 
pears,  peaches,  cherries,  cucuml)crs,  in  fact  any  fruit  or  vege- 
table ;  dishes,  tables,  lea\-es.  crystals,  animals,  and  lastly 
the  geometric  forms,  —  not  only  develops  tlie  senses  of  touch 
and  sight,  but  also  affords  an  excellent  op[)ortunitT  to  lead 
the  child  into  the  "  FaiiT-land  of  Science." 

During  the  first  year,  liave  the  objects  Ix'fore  the  class  for 
imitation.  Occasionally  during  the  second  year  place  ;i 
sim])le  form  bcfoi'c  tlieui  for  a  short  time,  tlicn  I'cmove  it  and 
let  them  model  from  memory.  Allow  them  to  mal^e  from 
memoi'v  things  they  have  seen  at  home  or  elsewhere.  To 
teach  comparison,  let  each  make  some  object  shaped  nearly 
like  a,  ball,  cube  or  other  regular  form.  ,\.s  a  rule,  lun-e 
the  olijects  to  be  modelled  near  at  hand,  to  avoid  forcing  the 
memory,  and  training  to  cai'clcss  forms  of  exi)ressi()n. 

Call  for  the  names  of  objects  similai'  in  foi'm  to  each  otiier. 
thus  leading  them  to  classify.  (Jive  o[)p(U't unity  for  the 
imaginative  and  inventive  facailtics  to  express  I'peely.  and  so 
stimulate  them  io  activitv.  Keeji  in  mind  that  the  object  of 
the  woi'k  is  liot  the  ])eii'ect  hall  or  orange,  but  (tci'iirncji  in 
si'diiij  and  .s7r///  ///  ci'pj-i'.^si ikj  form.. 

As  ;dl  concepts  of  solid  b)i'in   come  originally  ihrough  the 


;••//.■  ^y  yiro   yi.Air 


Unicli.  <ii'  IMtluT  till'  lilU>rlll;li  >iiisc  (jf  U'I-;i<[i.  ;inil  ;i-;  t!ir 
:tccunitr  scfiiiu  nf  Inriii  ((fpciuls  iqn;!!  llir  ;i>.~.(»ri;aii  ui  (jf  liulit 
and  sliaiic  \sit!i  sfiisatioiis  of  loiicli.  it  is  of  llu-  utniu-t 
impoitaiwe  liial  ciiiMi-cii  u>e  only  the  si'ii-r-i  ir;_;aiis  in  ino'lrl- 
liii^'.  l';ittinu'  ami  roliiiiu'  tin-  clay  ii[i()ii  thi'  ilt'-!^;.  or  ciiUiii'^' 
ami  siiioothuiL;'  it  with  a  knil\'  or  >ticlv  rr--iilt  in  alioiil  a-  inn<-h 
(lt'VC'lo[)nifiit  of  jiowcr  lo  jtri'cciw  form.  a->  [loiirinu'  Icail  into 
a  hnlK't-niouM.  or  nial<inu'  Wricks  in  a  lac-s.  Let  ns  cvcr 
lvcc|)  in  miml  tliat  the  clay  form  in  the  chii>l"-  han^l  is  merely 
a  means  of  direclinL!,'  liis  o!i>ei'\ation  to  a  perfect  mo'lel  set 
in'fore  him.  'J'heref<  >re  do  not  consi.e-r  tliat  (.le\ice  the  hot 
wliicli  enaiiles  him  to  reju'oihice  the  model  in(.i-t  nuicj^Iv  and 
ac(Mn'ateIy  :    'nit   ratliei-.    tliat   whicli    stinmlates   his   attention 

most  often  .and  mo^l  ejoselv  to  tlie  juM't'eet  form  >et  lu'fore 
him.  All  foi-iiis  wliicii  are  to  lie  imitate.l  >h(,ii!d  hv  jiandled 
as  well  as  -cell  :  in  faet.  the  former  is.  in  the  lie^^imiine.  more 
im|)ortant  liiaii  the  latter. 

It  is  a  \a'iy  intei'e-t  ine-  exiierimeiil  lo  MindfuM  ]in|iils 
occasionally,  and  h-i  them  model  hv  the  sen-e  df  touch  nn- 
aideil  liv  siuiit.  riace  a  form,  sueh  as  a  fruit  <ir  vcLi'dalilc 
whei'e  the  children  can  tmieh  and  handle  it  widi  eves  el,i^cd. 
A--k  them  to  make  it  in  elav.  thu>  n-iiinriir.;  them  lo  perci  i\'e 
its  form  throiiLih  the  touch  (or  mu>eular  >en>e  (d'  era^p  aid''d 
b\-    the    >en-ili\-e    lill'^ei'-t  i  p~;  )  'I'hi--    tends    i,j    intensify    the 

penH'[it~  of  I'lirm.  and  cultivati'^  a  \"er\'  dclieaic  -eii<e  of 
touch.  'I'he  models  maile  under  the>e  condilions  aie  u-ua!lv 
(plitc  perfei-t.  The  pi'aetice  of  ile^t  ii  lyiuu'  tiie  w  oi'k  of  llu 
chiMi'en  as  ^n^w  as  the  lesson  is  lini-heii  temls  lo  di<couraL:e 
careful  work.  If  the  elav  niu^t  he  innaediatelv  piaclced  or 
weilge<l  j'or  use  ne\i  day.  the  forms  >lioul'!  uol  lie  ilisiiiiyed 
in  the  presence  oi    the  cla-^. 


38  THE   CHILI)   A.\J)    SATUllK. 


r()jj)i; 

Color  is  tuuL^iit  in  li'eoorapliy  :is  ;iii  :ii(l  to  seeing  and 
iinauiuin;;'  foims  ;is  they  :i[i[>e;ii'  in  nature.  Place  upon  a 
tal)le  a  e(jllection  of  bri^iit-colored  olijeels,  sueli  as  Uowers, 
feathers,  fi'uits,  worsteds,  ribbons  and  splints.  Let  the 
l)upils  soil  them  by  i)utting  like  eolors  toizether.  Tliis  exev- 
eise  trains  them  to  distiiiuuish  readily.  ^latehiuy;  should  be 
made  the  test  for  color-blindness. 

Place  a  color  before  the  pupils,  and  ask  them  to  name 
ol)jects  of  the  same  color  in  the  schoolroom,  or  to  liriiiy,' 
somethini;-  like  it  the  next  day.  This  will  develop)  observa- 
tion and  memory,  and  cultivate  habits  of  classiljcation. 
When  [)upils  i-ecounize  a  coloi'  readily,  iiive  its  name.  To 
aid  the  association  of  nanu's  with  colors,  ask  i)U])ils  to  sele<'t 
from  the  table,  e.g.,  all  the  red  objects;  then,  to  nairie  any 
othei's  they  can  see.  When  the  names  recall,  |»resent  various 
articles  and  rcfpiii'e  pupils  to  name  tlu^  colors.  Thus  they 
learn  to  recounize.  com[)are,  classify,  select  upon  hearing  the 
names,  and  to  use  the  names. 

Tse  but  few  cc)lors  at  lii'>t."and  tlu'se  as  near  the  standard 
as  possible.  The  most  ini|K)i1ant  i)art  of  the  work  is  to 
lea<l  i)Upils  to  observe  them  in  clothing,  animals,  fi'uits, 
leaves,  sunsets,  rainbows  etc.  l^\-en  the  youngest  pui)ils 
mav  leai'u  much  from  the  box  of  ordiuarv  water-colors,  using 
them  in  painting  le;i\'es.  birds  and  fi'uits.  This  device 
l)rescnts  an  excellent  o|)poilunity  for  teaching  tints,  shades 
and  hues  later  on. 

()bt;iiu  from  a  glnzici'  bits  of  coloi-ed  glass  foi-  pupils  to 
look  through.  In  some  rt'speet-;  this  is  superioi'  to  paints 
in  tcMching  combinations.  ibildingblue  glM<s  (or  u'clatine 
[);4»er)    towaids   the   light     and    phieing  witii    it    led.    \iolet  is 


FIIiST  TWO    yj:Ai!>. 


:Vj 


pro'luccd.  Likewise  red  ami  yellow  uive  orange:  Mm'  ami 
vellow.  ui'i'i'ii.  Plaeiiiii'  Hie  lii'cfii  ami  oiaiiL^c  touetluT 
results  in  citrine;  u'reeu  ami  xiolct,  olisc:  oran::!.'  au<l  \-i(.>lel. 
ru>set.  The  ulassfs  have  the  advaiitaiie  tliat.  after  anv  rn\i>r 
is  |iri>ilurfi!.  it  nuiv  'ii'  analyzeil  liy  milinu'  what  lila-scs  jirr 
(•(iniliinnl.  1)V  u>inu'  thein  in  a  >uiall  xilar  camera  or  maLi'ic- 
lantcrn.  anil  projeeting  the  eiilors  u[)(in  a  >crccn  in  atlarkencil 
room.  inlcii>i'  interest  may  he  awakcncij.  'l"ints  and  >hailcs 
may  he  \cry  easily  iir<xlueed  hy  plaeinL:'  few  cir  many  pieces 
of  the  same  eolur  tuyether. 

Although  natural  seiisihilily  may  enter  somewhat  into  the 
discernment  of  the  lieautiful.  ta>te  is  lariiely  the  re>ult  of  vn\- 
ture.  Indee(l.  it  may  l)e  (juestioiieil  whether  what  is  termed 
natui'al  sen-^ihility  is  not  in  reality  hei'editary  cailture.  ^\'e 
see  only  harmonv  of  colors  in  nature,  tiijd  theref(,ire  take  it 
for  our  li'uide  in  mattt.'rs  of  ta>te.  Jieeause  coinliinations  in 
nature  ha\c  vvw  heeii  the  same,  may  not  harnRtny  lie  the 
result  of  au'es  of  proeutat ion  of  the  same  eomMnations  to 
the  Sentient  ner\-e  of  si-ht.  thus  deVelopiiiLL'  that  sen^e 
U)  reeei\e  with  le>s  anii  I"-s  lesi-tance  tlie  wa\'es  of  stimula- 
tion of  so-called  hariin  inioi;^  cojoi-.  ju-t  as  re[ielitit  ai  i'\ 
stiumlation  of  any  sen-i'  rendeis.  that  r-en-e  nioie  >ii-ce[itiMe 
tu  succeedinu-  >en>ati<jns  of  a  >imil:ii-  Ixind?  lIowe\er  that 
may  he,  the  fact  remains  that  Ia->te  in  arianu'enuait  of  colni- 
niav  l»e  develo[i<-d  hy  sludyini;,'  coJoiinLi'  in  nature. 

Let  iiuiiils  name  the  comliinations  of  colors  on  >wei't^|)ea>-. 
pausies.  pinks,  autumn  leaves.  lieu,onias.  liird-.  huttei'llie- 
etc..  ami  make  similar  comliinations  with  coloied  (a'a_\i>u. 
paints,  worsteds  and  pa[iei-  foi-ms.  (ul;i\ate  ta-te.  ii^t  1 'y 
trviii'j,'  to  explain  the  law  of  harmony  wliicli  reijuii'es  the 
pri'>enee  of  ceitain  eomplementai  y  coh^r-..  luit  hy  leadini;' 
pnpiis  to  u'oserve  euuikinatiun^  in  nature',      d'a-te  is  ahility  to 


40  TIIK   CIIILI)   A^^T)   yATJ'Ri:. 

discriiuinute  luiniiuuy,  nitlier  lluui  mere  ineniory  of  coiiibina- 
dons  that  harmuiiize  ;  and  should  be  devolo[)ed  by  idlowini;' 
pupils  t(.)  judii'e  "which  arc  the  most  beautiful  of  inauy  com- 
binations made  l)y  nature,  themselves  and  the  teacher.  The 
natiu'c  study  should  in  all  cases  precede. 

This  work  can.  of  course,  only  be  begun  during  the  first 
two  years,  but  it  should  ])e  continued  through  all  the  grades. 
No  work  IS  moix'  i)ractical ;  and  yet  it  may  all  be  incidental 
to  language,  luunber  and  reading  lessons. 

J' I  ELI)    1. ES.SOXS. 

AVlu'n(>ver  it  is  [lossible,  take  short  iield  trijis  with  the 
pupil>i.  IlaAU'  numl)er  and  language  lessons  where  the  little 
ones  can  gather  numbers  of  beautiful  things  to  talk  about. 
'Fhe  lirst  woi'lv  in  languag(!  is  to  lead  children  to  talk  and 
write  fluently  by  giving  them  something  to  stimulate  thought ; 
and  when  they  have  ac(juired  an  easy  flow,  to  correct  faults, 
()!•  rather  (ailtivate  correct  hal)it3  of  seeing  and  expressing. 
In  tlu?  fields  there  is  food  for  thought,  an<l  the  clatter  of 
bus}'  tongues  —  evidence  of  active  minds  —  gives  the  teacher 
the  oi)i)ortunities  b»r  coi'reeting  errors  that  require  so  much 
hard  work  in  the  schooli'oom.  The  corrections  will  be  the 
more  lasting  fi'om  the  fact  that  they  are  mad<'  wliile  the  mind 
is  in  this  highly  active  state. 

Not  only  may  the  foi'ms  of  land  and  water  be  taught  in 
tliis  manner,  but  also  directions  and  locations  of  objects; 
and  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass  may  be  ch'termined 
In'  the  sun. 

/'/.  ».Y7'.S, 

If  the  school  is  in  tlu'  counti'v,  have  little  tlowei'-beds  in 
the  yard.  Let  the  [lUpils  pi'epare  Ihc  soil,  plant  the  seeds, 
pull  out  wccd>,  water  and    lake  general  care  of  them.      City 


7-7 /.'-y    yil'o    YKAi; 


41 


scliddls  can  lia\e  u  iVw  Imxcs  ol'  Icjum  aii'l  >aiiil.  l>iit 
wlictluT  in-i'k'  III'  oul<iilr  the  scliiiulrdoui.  u-c  only  llu"  sc^iU 
of  plants  svliicli.  riliiri'  liv  their  hhmIcs  of  uiowtli  or  coiniiicr- 
v-ial  \aliU'.  will  aiil  ilic  piqiils  in  tht-ir  futiii\-  stiiilic^.  For 
(•xaiii|ili_'.  [ilaiit  corn.  I'l'ans.  iiu-loii>.  ai-orns.  oranu\'s.  (.-otton 
ami  rii-c  :  al-o  set  out  an  onion  ami  a  [loiato.  J-aironraii'r  the 
rhiMnai  to  make  lillU'  wooiUai  hoes.  s[iaile>.  [iIouliIis  ami 
ralvrs.  aii'l   n>e   thrm   in   tlie   ^aniens  oi'  lioxcs. 

(iive  lanuu;i,:^e  losons  upon  the  Icavi's.  sti-Mus.  roots  anil 
tlowcrs.  as  sd.m  as  they  a[i[M'ar.  ami  in  this  way  arouse  an 
interest  in  oii-er\'iiiu'  urowiiiu'  plants.  The  chiMren  niav  lie 
leil.  \-erv  .-lowlv  of  eoui-e.  to  lUsroxfr  tile  siiujile  relations 
lietween  .-^oil.  nioi>lure  ami  heat  that  reiziilale  tiie  (li>ti'iliu- 
tion  of  veLietal  ion.  'I'liis  kinil  of  worlv  will  til-o  (ailti\ate 
tile  excellent  hal'it  ol  patiently  -lu'lyiiri  an  olijeet  tlirouuii 
>uee•e:^>iv^•   >ta'_;e.>   ol'    urowtii. 


I  v/  1/  ;  /  •«. 

Laii'jua'ie  anil  ilrawinu'  le--oii-~  may  In-  Lii\en  almut  coiii- 
nioii  animals  tliat  arc  txpes  of  milcrs  or  familio;  c.u'..  cat. 
woiiii.  elaiii.  >Iarli-li.  ilir-k'.  I'vo'j:  aii'l  perch.  The  oliject 
-lionlil  lie  to  ilc\-cl(ip  an  intcrc-t  in  animal  -tuilw  anil  tliis 
can  lie-t  1 'C  (l(.i]e  kv  Icailiiiu'  ilicin  to  (iisr,,i'i  r  soinetiiiiii:. 
Thcv  -lioiiM  -lu'lv  liie  part<  wliich  are  the  lia-is  of  clas^ili- 
tion  :  aUo  name  other  animals  liavim:'  similar  parts.  thu> 
iMilti\-ati!iu'  ol'-cr\  .ation  ami  cla--ilicalioii.  The  work  -lionM 
lie  verv  simple,  anil  the  oiilv  cla-^ilicatioii  >lionM  re-iiU    from 

the  [lUpils'   oNVn   ilisriiv-eiie^. 

V/.V/  /,"   I  /  s. 

Teach  them  {<:,  reco;jnizL'  a  few  eommon  minerals  liv  usinsT 
them  in  numkci'  aii'l  lanuuauc  h'-^-ons.  I..t  thiiii  make  ;i 
collection  of    the  miiiiaal>  ^^i  the  ili-lrict  for  a  school  caMnet. 


42  THE   CHILD    AND    NATURE. 


S 1CA  S  O-V  TI<: A  C II 1  A' <} . 

Anotlier  line  of  work  wvAy  be  l)egun  b}'  leading  pupils  to 
obsei've  the  wonderful  plienouiena  of  elianging  seasons,  — 
snowflakes,  hailstones,  frost,  dew,  rain,  varying  eolors  of 
leaves  and  grass,  ripening  fruit  ete.,  at  times  when  nature 
best  illustrates  them.  Draw  the  elouds  and  wateh  their 
motions.  A\'ate!i  for  the  lirst  returning  birds  and  the  earli- 
est opening  buds.  Note  whieii  birds  remain  with  us  all  win- 
ter, and  whieh  Uy  away  ;  in  what  direction  they  go,  and  when. 

SUMMARY. 

No  extra  time  is  needed  for  the  work  here  outlined.  Jt 
may  l)e  made  sup[)lementnry  to  tlie  other  studies.  These 
lirst  ste[)S  may  be  woven  into  the  luimber,  language,  drawing 
and  reading  lessons  :  and  the  increased  interest  whieh  natural 
objects  will  annise  in  those  sul)jeets  will  greatly  lessen  the 
work  of  the  teaeiier.  ^Moreover,  npon  what  objects  can 
more  practical  lessons  be  given  than  u[)(jn  such  as  hel[)  to 
l)repare  tlie  jjupils  for  i\\v  work  of  the  higher  grades,  and 
at  the  same  time  ntford  the  best  possible  training  for  the 
senses  ? 

"  WIkmi  it  is  more  generally  understood  tluit  the  mind  is 
primarily  the  product  of  sensati(Mi,  — tiiat  without  sensation 
tiierci  can  be  no  inind,  —  more  importance  will  be  attached 
to  giving  dii'cct  nttention  to  the  cultivation  of  the  senst's. 
Touch  and  sight  -aw  of  far  wmw  impoilancc  in  intellectual 
ti'aining  than  hcniing.  yet  the  latter  scn^-c  is  the  one  usmdly 
I'clied  on  liy  teachers  to  pi'oduce  impn'ssions.  ^Vh('ll  sight 
and  touch  arc  called  into  action,  children  observe  and  think, 
while  by  henriuLi  tliey  ai'c  led  to  listen  and  remember.  Ob- 
servation and  thought  bring  knowledge,  hahilsof  self-reliance 


FI1!>T    TWO    Vh'AUS. 


v.] 


anil    iiivi'siiuatidii  ;    while    iiicre    lisleniuLi    ami   iTiinMiilKTiiiu 
Idslcf  lifliel'.  iiiiilalioii  ami  lU'peiiiU'Uri'.''  —  IC.    11'.  ^ji/'ir. 

Let  oiii'  aim  \k\  lirsl.  to  iiitcivst  our  }in[)ils  iii  iiaUii-al 
(jlijfcls  ainl  t'ni'iiis:  srcoud.  to  (iiiii'kt'ii  tlu'  scusfs  i  ihiid. 
to  lay  a  I'oiniihuioii  in  kiKjwlciliie  for  I'litui't'  >niil_v.  'I'hc 
liiL;lu'--t  test  i^f  Lidoil  Icacirui'/  will  he  llir  iiici'va.SL'd  iuvf  oiir 
little  oiif>   lia\e   for  natui'e. 


44  THE  (MILD   AND   NATURE. 


CIIAl'TER    V. 
-/.-DISTRICT    RELIEF. 

First  Steps.  ■ — The  lirst  work  in  eU'inciitary  geoiitiqthy  is 
to  lead  the  [)npil.s  to  acf^uire  distinct  mental  i)ietiii'es  of  the 
forms  of  kind  and  water  ul)out  home,  and  to  study  the  forces 
of  water,  air  etc.,  which  act  iii)on  these  forms  to  i)repare 
the  surface  to  support  life.  The  imagination  of  form  is 
limited  to  sense  i)roducts.  Our  concepts  of  foreign  lands 
and  phenomena  which  we  have  never  seen  are  made  up 
purely  of  our  sense  products,  groujied,  perhaps,  in  new 
relations  in  imagination.  We  may  never  have  seen  the  great 
desert  in  Africa,  —  its  vast  stretch  of  burning  sands,  its 
oases  and  terrible  sand-storms,  —  and  yet  we  have  mental 
l)ictures  of  all  these.  Some  lield  of  sand,  a  meadow  si)ring. 
and  the  wlurling  dust  in  the  street,  aided  l)y  pictures  inter- 
preted by  means  of  our  sense  products,  have  formed  for  us 
the  great  Sahara. 

Every  scliool  district  is  a  world  in  miniature,  for  it  repeals 
the  structure  and  sloi-y  of  its  life  in  i)ictures  so  \'ivid  and 
language  so  siiii|)le  that  ev<'i'y  child  may  see  and  read.  All 
forms  of  land  ;ind  water,  the  forces  at  work  building  and 
wearing,  the  conditions  that  regulate  the  disti'ibution  of  plant 
and  animal  life  niay  be  discovere(l  before  e\'ei-y  scli()(»l  door, 
repented  in  endless  varietv.  ()fteii  we  must  seek  the  greater 
through   tlu!   lesser,    but   the    imagination    I'eadilv   enlarges   u 


DISTUKT    RELIEF. 


45 


picfun'.  Thu^  we  stu'ly  tin'  Iiillsi<le  as  a  l)asi.s  I'oi'  iiuai^iii- 
\\\'S  tlu'  Lii'iMt  slopes  of  the  earth's  surface  :  also,  the  lirook 
iiasiii  thai  we  iiiav  iiii;ii:iii('  the  <lr;iilinue  of  the  ureat  rivei'- 
hasiiis.  The  littk'  deltas  foniieil  ill  the  street-ii'utters  show 
lie)W  the  Lii'eat  alluvial  [ilaius  of  tlu'  world  have  lieen  formed  : 
while  a'lout  us  on  I'very  side  are  phints  and  auimals.  tviies 
of  the  Li'i'eat  families  that  rover  the  earth.  ••  Hverv  little 
nook  and  >haded  corner  is  hut  a  rillection  of  tlie  whole  of 
nature."  This.  then,  is  fundamental:  The  lirst  sti'[)  in 
i;eo:^i-aphy  is  to  st-.idy  that  part  of  our  district  which  may 
he  .-oiii  and  (i-'ircJ/id  tirc,-. 

What  to  Teach.  —  ^^'e  should  teach  nothiuL;'  for  the  sake 
of  the  thiuL!'  itself,  hut  as  a  preparation  for  what  lies  heyoml. 
\\'e  piroent  our  district,  not  that  the  child  may  lu'come 
familiar  with  the  hills  and  valleys  of  his  own  town,  hut  thai 
throuiiii  them  he  niav  lie  enahled  to  imauiue  the  surface  of 
the  elohe.  Neither  should  we  ti'ach  a  form  or  a  force  merel\- 
hecause  it  alToi'ils  an  o|iportimit v  to  de\clop  mental  power. 
^\dlile  the  hielie-.t  aim  of  all  tcachiuii'  should  he  power  or 
character,  we  >hould  c\'er  keep  in  mind  that  the  ^reate-t 
power  is  (le\eloped  from  ri'iht  >tudy  and  u-e  of  tlio>e  things 
which  ai'c  most  ]iractical.  and  which,  hy  thi'ir  rc|»eate(l  u^e. 
are  continuallv  arou>inL:'  mental  acti\ity.  In  decidini!,'  what 
to  u-e,  we  have  a  -ni'c  'juidc  :  'J'l  nrji  tjmsr  fnrnis.  j'orr^s  ami 
rin,n:i)nnX  'nil'l  tjnit   shn^hl   nml;-   lij,  t]i(-  rinh]' .-<   ,rnrl'l  /■iriure. 

Sand-Table.  —  Make  a  taMe-top  ( -ee  frontispiece)  ahoui 
three  hv  four  feet,  with  a  I'im  I'ai^eil  two  inches.  I'lace  tlii- 
on  a  small  ta'ilc  or --land  ahout  thiitv-two  inches  in  heieht. 
and  fasten  nt  oni'  end  hy  hinees  so  that  it  may  he  indincii 
towaril  the  |)U[iils.  Stl■ip-^  of  wood,  such  as  ;ire  n-ed  to  hold 
up  piano-tops,  may  he  useil  to  sup[)ort  it  at  any  desired 
an^le.       A     zincdineil    drawer    placed    under    the    tahle    for 


40  77/7';   CHILD   ylNJ)   NATUIIK. 

holding  sand  will  be  found  convenient,  nllhougli  it  ni;iy  lie 
kej)t  in  ;iny  connnon  box  or  bucket,  'i'lic  table-top  should 
be  made  of  [)ine  or  whitewood,  well  seasoned  or  kiln-dried  to 
))i'i'vent  war[)in<z;  and  cracking.  A  coat  or  two  of  blue  i)aiut 
to  represent  water  on  the  table  will  also  tend  to  preserve  it. 

Model  Tins.  ^ — These  tins  may  be  ol)tained  fi'om  any  tin- 
smith, and  should  be  made  of  a  good  (|uality  tin.  fourteen  by 
twenty  inches,  henuned,  rinnned  one-half  inch,  with  the  hem 
turned  out,  and  corners  soldered. 

So  far  as  is  known,  ''  model  tins  "  were  (irst  ust'd  in  bSSl 
by  the  i)upils  whos(^  lessons  are  re})()rted  on  p.  .')2  el  scrj.  It 
is  gratifying  to  note  that  many  thousands  are  now  in  use  in 
vai'ious  sections  of  the  country.  This  (le\ice  supplements  the 
sand-table,  and  insuri'S  indi\idual  attention  and  woi'k  by 
re(juiring  all  the  [)U[)ils  of  a  class  to  model  at  the  same  time. 

Care  of  the  Sand.  —  Fine  sand  of  any  kind  may  be  used 
in  modelling.  An  excellent  cpiality  m;iv  be  obtained  from 
any  ii'on-foundry.  Order  the  tinest  sifted  moulding-sand. 
Fine  beach-sand  is  also  good.  Kce[)  it  moist  by  sjn-inkliiKj 
on  it  a  little  water  each  day  after  using.  Do  not  attemi)t 
to  stir  or  mix  tlu"  sand  while  wet.  Fet  it  stand  over  night, 
and  the  w;iter  will  filter  evenly  throuuhout.  preptirinu'  it  in 
the  best  possil)le  way  for  use  lu^xt  day.  If  kept  in  a  covere<l 
box,  it  will  re<[uire  but  little  wntei-.  The  exact  amount,  nnist 
be  learned  by  expt'rience,  as  the  quantity  will  yaiy  with  the 
temperatui-c  and  humidity  of  the  atinosi)herc.  It  ret;nns  its 
form  best  when  only  irioistened.  and  should  never  Ik'  wet 
enough  to  stick  to  the  hands.  Always  |iut  the  sand  in  the 
box,  and  cover  it  as  soon  :is  possible  after  using. 

Use  of  Devices. — ^  Distinct  mental  picliu'csof  forms  can 
be  acquired  by  contimicd  oltservation  oi'  atlcntion  only.  To 
stimulate  attention,  we  use  yarious  dc\ices.   e.a'..  modellina'. 


i)f<ri;i(T  liKi.iF.F 


(li'.'nviii'j.  (■\'|HTiiiiciit->.  (|Ucsiii)ii->  ;iii'l  jiicUin's.  Tlu'  cait'l'iilly 
iiioiiMfil  t'lii-iii-;.  till'  .•u-cur:itf  (IrawiiiLis.  tlic  ctii'i'cct  aii^wci'-  to 
<lUf>ti()ns  >!iiiuM  Hut  lie  ihc  cihi  ^ouuht.  aii'l  can  iic\-i'r  >iil»l'ly 
ihf  [ilact.'  uf  iiaUirc.  1 1'  the  ilr\  ice  1  n'  iiKnU'tlu'  (.'lid.  [)Ul)iU 
will  lU'\iM'  v,'f  licvciiid  the  iiicif  roiiii  of  cxpfcssion.  Dcvicrs 
arc  iniTt'lv  iiifaii-i  liv  which  the  tcaclu'i'  may  uivc  ilirccliun 
td  iiiVf>liL:ati(>ii.  ainl  ri\cl  the  atlciitidii  u|»wii  thr  ohjcct  of 
thdiiLihl  lit  -tiiily.  As  the  ai;iiii|'  the  Icssdli  is  to  awaken 
iiiciilal  ,",cti\  it\'.  (■(Uiiit  that  (ir\ii-r  1k'>L  whii,-h  ilciiiaiiils  clnsesL 
(»liscj\atiiiii  and  (iriiiiiial  investiLiatidii.  and  which  for  the 
loni:f>l  time  incites  the  inind  to  exercise. 

\\'ait  jiatiently  for  the  children  to  v'""'  to  the  an-^weis. 
Let  tliem  lia\''  the  jdV  lliat  spiiiiM-,  I'lom  tiie  discoxci'y  ot'  a 
trutii  li\-  theii'  (iwn  eiTuiN.  d'he  he>t  le>-.(in  i>  not  that  which 
(dicits    \\\v    Lireale-^t    ininilicr  of  answers,    hut    is    tiiat    which 

Stinnilates   the  deepesi    liidilLlht. 

The  District.- — d'o  ihu^ti-ate  the  study  of  a  district,  a 
nciiihhdrhdiid  ha-  heen  --clceled  wJiM-,;'  hills,  valleys  and 
^l■ooI^-lla-in~■  ha\"e  liecdinc  faniilia!'  fruni  lia\iuLi'  s,i  often 
tranipeil  (i\crlhiaii  uith  little  pujiiU.  'Idie  (demeiitai'V  woi'k 
on  land  and  watci'  forms,  here  ouilineil.  should  extend 
thiMiiL;h  at  lea-t  /"'o  ih'irs.  as  indicated  hy  the  coui'se  of 
>tudy  in  the  apiiendix.  ami  mav  he  !ie'_,|iii  jn  tl,,.  thji'd  eiadt 
or  'ii'uinniuL:  of   tlnrd  vi'ar  in  -chool. 

AhlioULih  the  chi--  mav  ha\e  had  --ini|ile  les-^ons  upon  hilU'. 
[londs.  clouds  etc..  and  mav  lia\"e  hvinicd  1o  -tate  the  dirce- 
lioii  of  one  hody  fiom  anoih.ci'.  to'jeijier  with  other  lines  of 
work    indicated    in  the  chapter  on  the  I-di'-t    'Two  Years.  liie-e 

steps    ~.hould     he    L^i'nc    oVi-!'    ollce     more    lo    fuidout     jusl    what 

has  lieeii  done.  The  lic-^t  wav  to  exan;ine  a  class  is  Pv 
teachiiiLT  it  a  new  le--on.  and  oh^erxiiej  whal  powei'  and 
kliowleilue  the  pupils  can  luiiiL:  t"  l"'ai-.       'I'he    aim  will    he  to 


48  THE   CHILD   AND   NArUBE. 

develop  the  perceptive  faculties  and  expression  together,  each 
re-acting  to  strengthen  tlie  other  ;  and  thus  lay  the  basis  for 
vivid  imagination  ;uid  accurate  reasoning.  Moreover,  they 
may  at  tlie  same  time  study  sucl)  facts  as  will  hqst  prepare 
them  to  imagine  the  surface  of  the  whole  eartli  with  the  forces 
at  work  npon  it.  The  following  list  of  forms  was  suggested 
by  the  school  district  on  p.  73.  It  is  not  intended  as  an 
order  to  be  followed,  but  rather  to  indicate  what  f>/j>es  are 
to  be  found  in  a  small  district.  A  valuable  rule,  however, 
which  tlie  teacher  should  observe  is  this  :  Each  lesson  shotdd 
be  based  on  those  fhctt  have  alreadt/  been  given. 

I.  — J  OHMS   or   T.ANI)   ANT>    WATER. 

IIiLL  or  MoiXTAix.  —  Side,  slope,  gradual,  al)i'ui)t.  length, 
height,  top,  summit,  peak,  bluff.  preci}iice,  group,  range, 
system.  Valley. — -^Meadow,  marsh,  swamp,  plain,  marine 
plain,  gorge,  pass,  canon.  Bkook  or  liivKU.  — Banks,  right 
and  left,  bed,  channel,  current,  rai)ids.  waterfall,  spring,  hot 
spring,  geyser,  glacier,  moraine,  source,  mouth,  delta, 
estuarv.  alluvial  plain,  ])ottom  land,  tributary,  system, 
water-i)arting  or  divide,  l)asin.  Vi^W)  or  Lark.  —  lied, 
basin,  shore,  head,  foot,  inlet,  outlet.  Taiu-k-laxu  or 
rLATKAi;.  — Desert.      \'<)L('AX().  — Crater,  lava. 

(yOAsr.  — Shor(\  l)each.  ca))e.  pi'omontory.     Island.      Pi;x- 
ixsLLA. — Istlunus,    neck.      IIauboi;.  —  I*oi-t.    lia\'en.    road. 
\\\\.  —  (lulf,  S(\'i.      CiiAXXKL.  —  Strait,  sound.      ()<'i;ax  (?) 
—  Tide,  cui'rent.      ( 'oxtinf.nt  (  ?) , 

Immediately  aftei'  i)reseuting  a  form  of  laud  or  water, 
some  teaclicM's  prefer  to  gi\-('  the  \arious  iiames  applied  to 
that  foi-m  in  dilTerent  count i'i(.'s  ■  e.g..  when  "  plain  "  has  been 
taught,  the  names  [)rairie.  savamia.  st('[)p(-.  lande,  llano  and 
l>aini>as  are  u'ivrn  ;   and  witli  ••  marsh  ",  thcv  t<'acli  the  words 


nrsruTcr  nv.i.rr.r. 


41 » 


niooi-.  liou'.  I'cii.  iiioniss  ami  luiidra.  .\s  the  iui[)iU  know 
litllc.  ii'  any  tiling',  of  the  (•oniili''u's  in  which  ihc^c  arc  found. 
and  do  not,  at  [irocnl  ii.'cd  tlic  foiciLin  na.iucs.  would  it  not 
lie  hctlcr  to  lucrcly  lui'iitioii  ;it  lhi>  liuic  the  fact,  that  other 
Ijeople  u>c  different  names,  and  ^\r{rv  tcachiuLi,-  tlieni  till  they 
ari'  re(|uii<'d  y  The  aim  at  lirst  is  rather  to  tench  the  tliiuL!,' 
itself  than  its  many  names. 

Sugfe'estions.  —  The  lirst  le.>.~.on  at  least  u[ion  each  form 
should  lie  ;:i\-eii  where  the  i)U[»ils  e;ui  distinctly  observe  it  in 
nature.  If  it  is  alisolutelv  imixissihle  to  take  ;i  !i(dd-tri["».  use 
a  sand-taMe  and  solar  eamei'a,  with  bhu'l^lioard  ski'tchcs  and 
many  |ii<-tures.  Ia'L  the  pupils  ilisron-r  the  answers,  and  'k' 
careful  to  include  no  \k\v\  of  tlicm  in  tlic  ipie-tions.  i.cl  all 
ipiestions  lie  dctinite.  thai  tlic  children  may  l\now  what  lo  look 
for:  and  a-  our  ohject  is  to  lead  them  to  ohscrNc.  i'C(piire  as 
many  different  answers  as  po-^^ihle  to  each,  as  c\-ideuce  ot 
iiidi\'idual  oii-cr\  ation.  (  ouccrt  rccilation  is  an  excellent 
means  of  ••>|iowin'j  off""  (piiek  pupils,  and  depriving'  slow 
ones  of  all  oppoitunitv  for  thoULiht  :  luit  it  has  no  place  in 
a  tcacher"s  work  who  sct'ks  to  n^acli  the  indixidual. 

Wail  foi-  the  slower  minds  to  woi'k.  and  a^  a  I'ulc  allow 
Ihein  to  state  the  answer^,  for  the  leaih  intellect  needs  not 
this  stimuhis.  A\did  t  rainiiiu-  lo  >1  illi'd  foim  of  cxpiHvssion. 
l-et  it  lie  perfectly  natural.  If  the  ipic-ti.in  calls  for  a 
coin[)lcte  statement .  reipiire  the  same.  Iia;  if  il  ~-ii'_:'^cst-.  the 
omission  o|'  a  poitioii.  allow  it.  Look  laliicrloilic  maiinei' 
of  askin.,;-  th"  (|neslion.  and  so  frame  it  that  tlic  child"s 
thouuhts  will  call  for  complete  s,a,lenees  in  e\pre-.si( -ii. 
I'h'i'ors  in  spoken  a^  well  as  in  ^vl■itten  lany,'u;i^e  sli,.iild  lie 
corrected  while  the  [lictuic  is  in  cdHsriousuc^s.  in  ordia'  that 
the  cori'ect  ;'\pre>si(Mi  may  lie  associated  with  its  coiresjMind- 
iu'j.'  mental  stale. 


50  THE   CUT  LI)   A  XT)   NArURE. 

Pupils  slioukl  take  note-books  into  the  lields  for  the  jnii-pose 
of  sketching  nnd  recording  their  discoveries,  thus  tending  to 
fix  them  in  nienior}-.  TcmcIi  but  few  facts  in  each  lesson, 
and  those  few  tlioroughly.  (iive  new  names  as  soon  as  the 
forms  are  clearly  perceived.  Show  the  written  form  of  each 
new  word,  and  pronounce  it  distinctly  when  lirst  used.  This 
should  ])e  the  rule  in  all  subjects,  as  it  prev(?nts  wrong  or 
invented  s[)elling  from  l)ecoming  lodged  in  memory. 

Decide  what  objects  to  teach  before  going  on  a  lield-trip, 
but  allow  the  class  to  direct  the  observation  As  far  as  possible 
by  their  own  fpiestions.  Let  i)Upils  who  liave  discovered  facts 
question  the  others,  to  lead  them  to  observe  the  same.  This 
is  an  excellent  device  for  inciting  to  original  seeing.  ^lore- 
ovei',  the  framing  of  tlie  questions  greatly  intensilies  accurate 
perception.  Ikji  nit  ions  of  all  (jcofjnipliical  forms  should  be 
discorered  hy  the  x^upih^  and,  vever  told  tliem.  Leading  a 
class  to  discnrcr  a  dellnition  of,  e.g.,  a  hill,  is  a  vei'V  ^■aluable 
device  for  sui)plementing  the  work  of  modelling  and  drawing 
the  same  form.  Defining  or  <lcsci'ibing  necessitates  careful 
ol)servati()n  and  com[)aris()n  of  f(jrms.  ^Vs  well  may  the 
teacher  or  rather  teller  model,  draw  and  wrile  every  thing 
for  a  child,  as  make  sucli  desei'ii)ti()ns.  The  ])r()per  use  of 
defining  is  lujt  to  train  i^ari-ots.  but  to  develop  the  pcrceiitive, 
genei'aliziug  and  descriptivi'  ])owers  of  our  [lupils.  Effort 
alone  is  the  soil  of  growth. 

Too  great  importance;  cannot  l)e  attached  to  th(^  value  of 
cai'cfuUv  pi'cparing  each  lesson  before  presenting  it  to  tiie 
class.  The  teacher's  ellieiency  is  tliereliy  more  than  doubled. 
3Ioreover.  cliildren  have  a  right  to  expect  carefully  pi-epare(] 
mental  fcxxl,  and  it  is  a  mark  of  intelligence  that  the}'  rebel 
aiiainst  a  (hiily  fare  of  cold.  diT  facts.  A  few  lessons  are 
here  reported  in   full  to  illustrate  one  w:;y  of  i)i'esenting  the 


hI<Ti;i'  T    UEJ.IKF. 


'.1 


^uliji'ct.  aii'l  :i  iii.-unrM'  o!'  u-iiiu  liic  Narimis  (Icviccs.  It  i^ 
Hot  iui'  i;.l.',l  that  tlir  forii!-  of  hunl  aii'l  wattT  .>!iall  lie  taiiL^lit 
ill  till'  oi'ilrr  (lutliiu'il  a'lDvr.  'Tiii^  aiTaiiuciiiciit  was  siiLi'-ii'^U'il 
livtiic  <i'lii)(il  iji-tiicl  \\iii<-li  lia>  lifcii  -I'lcctril  t'or  a  nuKlrl. 
Tlic  more  familiar  I'oi'iiis  sliouM  In'  ]in'--i-iit<'il  tir-t  :  luit  wf 
>lioiiM  ;iiiii  to  [iioci'Nc  a^  far  a--  iio--iKlc  a  iiatiii'al  Ncy//, /,(■« 
'//■  ,s///.;.  .-'n.  :iiiil  y<'t  to  iiiii-o(lii<-i'  >iilliciriil  \-aiifty  lo  maintain 
intiTot. 

It  may  Kc  iioticcil  that  liir  diirf  aim  of  \\\v<r  illii^tiativc 
Ics-oiis  is  not  to  a--oi-iatt'  names  with  form-  anil  fon-rs. 
for  tliat  Would  lit'  nirrr  laiiLinaLii"  worlx  wliirli.  altlioiiLili  iin- 
portant.  >lioulil  Ih'   mailc  seconilaiy  to  UanlinLi'  the   impils   to 

'/;.■.•',,•,,•  tl,,:  snni^l"  I'nrs  < ,/  il ,: ' : n' i 'I'- .  /•'-/-•/.  hssnn  ..//-,//■,/ 
,ir.,,r  ,,,,1  nf  tin'  i,ri'-'''l'n''j  ",.".  :,,  nr^h  r  tl>'ll  r,.u': „ 'nl >l  './ 
Ill:, mil, I  iint'i  h,'  th  ,-i  i.,i„  il .  (ii\T  amjile  < '1 1]  lorl  I  uiit  \'  for  the 
ima'_;inatioii  to  express  iis  form-  lUnl  eoHi'.iiiMtioii-  li\-  moilel- 
liirj.  and  drawino.  tliaJ,  t!ii'  -vntiieiii-   or  iiiveutixe    powei'  mav 

!'!■  ellltiwited  with  the  aiialvtie  or  elilieal:  e.Ll'..  after  [Mlliils 
have  modelled  a  partieular  hill  or  \allev.  let  them  make 
any  other  -imiiai'  foiins  wliieh  tiiev  ean  llnd  in  their  di-Iriet 
or  in  pieturi'-.  and  aUo  eomliiiial  ion-  of   tiie  -ame. 

.lu-t  as  >oon  as  a  eonmion  loini  ha-  lieeii  eaiel'nllv  -tiidied. 

the  impils  -hoiild  he  led  to  think  of  larii'ei'  and  'jrander  form- 

of   the  .-ame   kind   in   di-t;inl    ImM'!-.      'Thus,  when    tlu-v  lia\e 

studied  the  1  irook-1  la-i n .  the  teai'lua'  -luaild  lell    -lorie<.  -how 

'ietiue-  and    let    them    r^  ad    of    -oaie  uii'al    ri\-ei'-l';;-in.    ea.:.. 

he  Amazon,  to  eulti\a'e  tlie  ima'jina; doll,  and  to    |ire[iare    tor 

he  study  of   the  un-i'iai  world.      d'hi-  i-  one  o|'   the    mo<t   im- 

lortant  -tep-  in   all   the   woilx.  and    -iioiild    not    he    m-ulfeted. 

(.See  p.  iw.) 

Attention  is  (Uier  more  called  to  the  -irj-e-i  ion  that  the 
piestirtns    on    water,    soil-makin',:'.    plan'-,    animals    ete.    I'e 


52  THE   CJIILJ)   AND    NATURE. 

studied  iu  cuiint'clioii  with  llic  k'ssoiis  on  the  forms  of  land 
and  water.  Let  all  the  elementary'  work  centre  in  the  slopef^ 
as  ilhistrated  in  the  vai'ious  district  forms.  The  geogra[)hy 
of  the  whole  earth  is  graven  in  every  broolv-basin. 

ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS. 

Lesson  on  Slopes. 

Anr.  —  To  lead  the  pui)i]s  to  discover  tliat  the  snrface  of 
tli(>  eai'tli  is  comixrsed  of  gradual  and  abrupt  sl()[)es. 

PuKrAKAiioN.  —  l'ui)i!s  hiive  stuflied  a  hill,  and  modelled 
it  during  a,  previous  iield-ti'ip.  I^ach  now  has  a  model-tin 
and  sand.      The  teacher  uses  a  large  sand-table. 

T('<ii'lii'i\  —  "We  will  all  model  the  hill  ui)on  which  the 
scho(jlhouse  stands.  Down  which  side  of  our  hill  would  3X)u 
rather  slide  on  your  sleds?  " 

First  Piijiil.  ■ — -^-JM  go  down  the  steep  side,  because  I 
could  go  swifter."  —  ••('oul<l  go  moi'e  swiftly,"  corrects  the 
teacher,  and  the  \m\)\\  i-e|M'a1s  the  sentence. 

SecoiiiJ  /'iijh'I.  —  ••  I  would  rather  slide  on  the  lonii'  side, 
Itecause  1  could  go  faiHier." 

lliiril  Pnp'il.  —  '■  \\'e  shouldn't  have  so  far  to  walk  liack 
on  the  sice])  side." 

Foiiri]i  I'lijiil.  —  ••  Uut  it  would  be  harder  to  climb 
there."' 

/•'//■///   I'll  I, II.  — •■  Oil  the  sfec})  si(le  we  could  slide  oftener." 

FciirJn'r.  —  '•  ( 'an  you  gi\-e  me  another  name  for  the  side 
of  a  hill?"  After  wailing  a  iiiouieiit.  as  no  answer  is  gixcn, 
the  word  ••  slope  "is  written  upon  tin-  blackboard  by  the 
teachei'.  and  prou(MUU-ed  by  the  i)Upils.  The  teacher  then 
asks.  "  How  many  slopes  has  this  hill?" 

Pupils.  —  '•  It  hns  ^wo.  the  long  and  the  sliorl  on(^" 


IL  L  IS  TU .  I  77  I  ■  /■;    /.  ESSOSS.  ,)., 

■•'riu'i'c  arc  slopes  Ix'hvrcii  thciii  two.'    -  •••  lU'twccii  tliosf 
two,"  is  rcix'atcd. 

••  It  lias  sIo[)cs  all  ai'ouml  it." 

'•  IL  slopt's  in  every  direction. " 

"  ( )ne  slojH'  i^ofs  all  around  the  hill."' 

7V'"7e /•.  —  ••  Ila\'e    vou   e\er   seen    any    land    that    doesn't 


Pupil.  —  ••  .Air.  d.'s  meadow  is  just  le\-el." 

Teuchi'r.  —  ••  ^\dlat    heeonies  of    the   rain    that   falls    upon 

this  meadow  ?  " 

I'l'jiil.  —  ••  It  nmst.  How  into  the  hrook."' 

y'ciirhrr.  —  '■  Wdiat  causes  it  lo  How  there?'" 

/'iijiil.  —  ■•The  land  iiuist  ^lopejusi  ;l    liule,  Imt   we    can't 

M'e  that  it  does." 

'/'(■'h-/iri-.  —  ■•  \\  hal  heconies  of  the   water   aftci'    il    r»,'ache> 

the  hrookr  " 

/'iijii/.  —  ••  Il  llows  out  aci'o>s  tin-  mar>he>."' 

Tc'icJii'r.  —  ■•  Ai'c  there  ;in\-  other   [ihu-es    which    you   tliink 

ai'c  leyel  ?  " 

PiipU.  —  ••  The  marshes   mu--l    he   IcncI    liecause   tlie   water 

>t,and>  in  ponds  and  does  not  How  off." 

Tiiti-hir.  —  •■  \\di\'  doc->n"l    the    watta'   spi'cad   all    ox'cr   the 

mai'slics.  ;ind  make  one  laru('  pond?" 

/'iij,ils.  —  ••  The  [iomls  ;ire  in   little  hollows." 

■■'i"he  lan<l  Iictwccn  the  poud>  is  too  hi^ii." 

••  The  surface  mu>t  slopi'  n  little  towards  the  poiKls.  " 

V' (/'■//'/■.  • — -'Slopes    like    tho-e    ill    the    mar-he^,    meadow 

and  street   in    front  of   the   school,  we   <-all  ■  ui'adiial   slope-.' 

You   may   co|iy   the    wortls    into    \oiii'    note-hooks    iVom    the 

lilackhoard.     Now  tcl!  me  where  \(Mi  ha\c  seen  otiK'r  gradual 

slopes."      'I'he   pu[iils   name   many  ol'    the    fu'lds    and    streets 

III  the  \iemity. 


54 


TllK   CHILI)    A.M)    yATURE 


7Vac7/(?r.  — ' ■  Now  model,  plnise,  ;i  Held  liuviug  only 
li'nidual  slopes  :uul  :i  br()ol<.  With  your  ruler  cut  tl\e  Held 
into  two  parts  ac/'o.ss  the  ])roolv,  and  remove  one  part. 
Now  see  if  the  water  from  the  slopes  would  run  into  the 
Itrc^ok."  .Vfter  seeing  that  all  have  modelled  it  eorrectly. 
the  teacher  requests  them  to  model  the  school  hill  again. 
This  is  to  direct  the  thougiits  of  ail  back  to  the  two  slopes. 

Teacher.  —  '•  AV hat  name  shall  we  give  to  the  other  slope?  " 

I^ujjtl.'^.  — •■  It's  a  sudden  sloi)e." 

"  We  may  call  it  a,  '  stt'cj)  slope.'  " 

Tedclier.  —  "Yes,  or  an  '  al)rni)t  slo})e.'  ('o])v  this  woi'd 
also,  please,  as  1  write  it.  \\'liere  have  you  seen  al»rii[)t 
sloi)es?"     They  give  many  ilhisti'ations. 

Teadicr.  —  ••  Each  may  model  a  perfectly  li_'\cl  field. 
Wliat  would  he  the  result  if  all  the  lields  were  like  these?" 

riApih.  — ••  There  wouldn't  he  any  slo[)cs." 

'•  We  couldn't  slide  down  hill." 

"The  rivers  would  stand  still." 

"  The  water  couldn't  form  i'i\-ers." 

'•The  land  would  be  covered  with  walt-r." 

'•It  would  be  nniddy  everywhere." 

'•The  ocean  wf)uld  How  over  the  land." 

"  Thei'e  wouldn't  l)e  any  land  t(»  livi'  ui)on." 

Tedc/icr  (modelling  a  gi'ou})  of  momitains).  —  "What  if 
the  surface  were  made  of  abi'upt  slopes?  " 

]'i'j)i/s.  —  '•  NVe  siiouldn'l  iK'U'e  any  meadows  and  marshes." 

"  All  the  ri\ers  would  be  \-erv  I'apid." 

'•  Ships  cou'ldn't  sail  u|)on  them." 

'•The  water  would  soon  luakc  gi'cat  gullies  in  the  slopes." 

To  close  the  lesson,  the  teacher  took  the  class  on  a  vei'y 
simiilc  iiiiauiiKii'V  ti'ip  uj)  the  (innu'cs  to  the  llimal;iy;i  ^loun- 
tains.  IcHiiiLi'  that  il  lies  far  to  the  ea>tward.  ncari\   half   wav 


iLLrsTiiAini-:  li:ssoxs.  .).) 

round  Uii'  rarlb  ;  inoiU'lliii'j,.  tU'sci'il»in<j;  Ihr  rivcr-liasiii,  ami 
pointiiiL"'  out  its  location  iiiioii  a  wall-map.  .Mlliouiih  the 
imi)iis  li;hi  not,  uf  coiiisc.  stutlicil  Asia,  ami  couM  rciiuMiilici' 
l)Ut  little  of  what  was  loM.  tlicy  ^aiiuMl  in  power  t(j  cnlaru'c 
the  seen  into  the  unseen. 


T'l'i)  Jjf;s.sons  on   UrDoh's. 

I'li'.lJ)   L/:ss()\. — Class,  with  note-hooks,  iiear  the  brook. 

Ai.M. — To  interest  the  pu[)ils  in  ohserx'inL:,'  hrooks.  ami 
to  teach  i-iirrciif^  and  "/>  and  (htirn  strcdiu. 

'/'caclirr.  —  ••  In  what  diiH'ction  does  lln'  hroolv  flow?  "" 

/'ii/iils.  —  ••  Towai'ds  the  [)ond." 

••It  runs  away  from  us.""  —  ••  1  )oes  il  r  ".  asks  the  tencher. 
pointiuL''  uj)  stream. 

••()li.  it  I'uns  towards  us.  too." 

••  It  llows  towards  the  south-west." 

••  It  llows  under  I'itt  Street."' 

••  It  runs  down  liill." 

Ti-iir/nr.  -^--•-  Where  did  the  watci'  come   from?'" 

I'lijiiU.  —  ••  The  rain  Iwouuhl  it." 

••It  come  from  Mr.  K."s  meadow.'"  —  •■It  came,"'  adds 
tlu'  tcaidier. 

••  It  llows  from  a  little  spring  neai'  Si|U;iiitum  Street." 

••  There  are  two  little  s[)rinu's  lU'Mr  those  ti'ccs.'" 

•■  Tln'  clouds  Iirou^ht  the  water." 

*■•  I  think  it  cami'  fi'om  the  si(les  of  the  hill  all  around  us.'' 

'/);(«■/(('/■.  —  ••  \\dicre  IS  it  aoinu?  "' 

I'lipUs.  —  •■  It  Hows  into  the  pond." 

•■  I)Ut   it  llows  out  on  the  othei'  side." 

••  I  thinl\  some  of  it  dries  up." 

••  It  llows  through  the  '^alt  mai'shes." 

••The  hrook  cm[)ties  into  the  Nepoiisi't   iTucr. 


oO  TllK  CHILI)   AM)  yATUin^:. 

••  .Viid  tliut  Hows  into  Ihe  ocenii." 

Teai-J/er. — ■'••  ^Vh;lt  mows  llmt  little  slick  in  tlie  l)ro()k?" 

Pii/iils.  —  '■  It  llonts  iilonu,'  on  the  water." 

'•  The  water  carries  it." 

'■  It  swims  on  the  water." 

■•  'I"he  motion  of  the  water  makes  it  u'o." 

Teacher.  — ''  ^^'hat  do  we  name  this  motion  of  the  watei'?" 
No  pni)il  k'nows.  so  the  teaelier  iii\'es  the  name  •'current." 
and  tells  them  f(^  write  it  in  their_  note-books  as  he  spells, 
••  c-u-r-r-e-n-t."  Looking  at  the  written  woi'd.  the  pupils 
pronounct!  it.  'I'he  teacher  directs  them  to  throw  several 
sticks  or  leaves   into  the   watei'.   and  then  asks. — 

'•Is  the  current  tlu;  same  in  all  ])arts  of  the;  brook?" 

J'/ij)i/.s.  —  ••Tln'  sticivs  hai'dly  move  near  the  shore." 

••  See  liow  swift  they  go  out  there."  —  "•  See  how  swiftly," 
suggests  llie  teacher  (juietly. 

"  The  current  is  swiftest  in  the  middle." 

'•'i'lK're  ain't  nnicli  current  near  the  slioi'c."  —  "Isn't 
mu<'li.'"  etc. 

7\'<ic/ii'r.  —  ••  We  will  foUo^v  the  sticks  a  short  distan(M>. 
and  see  how  swift  the  cui'i'cnt  is.  Does  tlie  water  How  up. 
or  down  ?  " 

'•  1  )own."'  sings  the  (-horus. 

Triir/nr.  —  ■•j'oint  down  stream:  uj)  strer.m.  Now  you 
may  all  sketcji  the  bro()I<  fi'oni  the  little  spring  to  the  [)ond. 
and  show  the  dii'cction  oi'   the  cui'i'cnt.  by  an  arrow." 

\\  hen  this  is  llnishcd.  the  class  is  dismissed,  as  it  is  now 
iiooii.  Long  after  the  teacher  has  returned  to  the  scho(_)l. 
the  cliildi'cn  liii'jer  by  the  brook,  throwing  iii  sticks,  or 
watching  the  water  bubbh^  fi'om  the  little  spi'ing  :  and  he 
knows  that  the  chief  object,  of  the  lesson  is  accomplished, 
—  the  cliildi'cn  -AW  inlei'er-.ted  in  ruiiniiiL:,'  water. 


n.i.rsinArni-:  lkssoss.  ,>, 

In  the  aftrrnooii.  the  pupils  wrilc  what  tiuv  >a\v  aini 
Icai'iifil  while  oil  their  lielil-trip.  The  words  ••  eiiiTeiil  " ' 
ami  •■stream""  art'  written  upon  the  hoard.  When  finished, 
the  st()iie->  ai'e  I'ead  aloud  and  disiaissed.  'I'his  (■on>lituU'S 
theii'  lanuuaue  and  readinn'  les-on  for  the  dav. 


ixnnoii  ].i  <<ti\.  —  The  teacher  ha~-  nio(U'ile(l  a  inook-hed 
in  ehiv.  sketched  several  lirooj^s  upon  the  lilackhoard  llowinu' 
in  \arious  directions.  ;uid  eolleded  a  nuniher  of  pictures 
of   lar^e   ami   small   sti'eams. 

Aim.  — 'l"o  review  the  forniei'  lesson,  and  to  tc^acli  hi-d  and 
/•/;////  ami  i'j't  />ii,t/,-s. 

lvK\iKW.  —  Water  is  poui'ed  into  the  I  ii'(,ok-hed.  and  the 
name  ■■current""  a^ain  ajiplied  to  it  as  it  llows.  l'[)  and 
down  >lream  are  also  recalled  hy  the  direction  ol'  the  current. 
I'he  teacher  then  asks,  — 

••  \\  hat   remains  lua'e  after  the  water  has  lloweil  out'r  " 

Pvjiih.- — •■The  place  wheie  it   llowed."' 

■•  There"s  a  lonu'  ti-oimh." ' 

■•  The  hottoin  of    the  lironf,   is  there."" 

'I\  .u-],.r.  -•'  \\\vA\  shall  we  call  this  pail  in  which  the 
water  lhs>  '' 

I'lipll.    —  ••  We  miLiht  call  it  a   •  l^cd."  "' 

Ti'ii-Jnr.  —  ••That  is  it>  I'eal  name.  What  holds  the  hrook 
in  its  IhmI  ?  ■' 

l^qiiLs. — ■■•It's  in  a  little  valley,  and  can"t  flow  over  the 
,ides."- 

••  The  sides  hold  it  in." 

••  It   would  overllow  if   you  -hould  make  a  dam  aia'oss  it." 

••  .^oiiu'times  it  doe>  How  over  after  a  ram-storm 

■■Thei'c  isn't  enough  vvuler  now. 

••  The  hanks  are  loo  iii'jh 


58 


THE   CHILI)   AND    NATCUE. 


As  the  woixl  ••hank"  is  so  coiiiiuon.  it  is  only  iK^eessary 
tf)  use  it  Ijefore  the  class  to  lix  it  ;is  tiic  iiaiiu^  of  tlie  laud 
alonu'  the  1)rooksi(le. 

Tcadwr.  —  •■  How  inaiiy  banks  must  a  brook  hiivi'?  "' 

/'/'7)/7.  — -Two." 

Tviiclicr.  —  '•  I'oint  up  the  l)i'()o!v.  —  down,"  rel'eri'inu'  to 
the  cue  in  ehiy.  '"  I'oint  down  each  l)i'oo]v  upon  l!ie  black- 
board. —  in  these  pictures.  It  you  were  facinu  down  stream, 
which  banks  in  the  pictures  would  lie  on  the  riii'iil  ?  " 

The  i)upils  indicate  them  by  pointinu'. 

Tciii'Iicr.  —  '■■  N\'e  will  always  call  these  the  ■  riiiiit  banks.' 
How  can  you  decide  which  is  the  ri^iit  bank  of  a  i^tream  ?  " 

Pi(j>il.  —  ''Face  down  stream,  and  name  the  one  on  the 
right  hand,  the  rigiit  bank." 

Teaclwr.  —  •'  Point  to  all  the  right  bnnks  in  the  |:)ictures  ; 
the  left  banks.  Draw  four  brooks  llowing  in  different 
dii'cetions  ;  make  arrows  pointing  down  stream,  and  write 
the  names  of  :ill  the  1)anks  in  their  proper  phu-es." 

The  teacher  closes  the  lesson  by  reading  to  the  class 
Tennyson's  beautiful  idyl  of  '•  The  IJrook." 


First   Li'.H.^ 


'HSOH    nil 


I>r()<>lr-/>fisiiis. 


Am. — To  lead  the  jaipils  to  discover  in  tlu;  brooi<d)asin. 
how  the  rainfall  of  a  continent  is  gathcre(l  into  rivers,  and 
returned  to  tlu;  se:i. 

I'ur.i'Ai.'A HON. — Th(>  teacher  has  modelled  two  adjoining 
bi'ook-basins  in  clav.  and  coxcrcd  them  with  a  thin  layer 
of  loam.  in  the  iircscnce  of  the  class,  watci'  is  poured 
u[)on  the  basins:  and  as  the  little  streams  follow  tiie  slopes, 
the  eaii'cr  faces  and  briu'ht  eyes  announce  that  the  minds 
arc  a<'ti\('  and  ready  The  siniple  device  has  se(nn'ed  close 
attiait  ion. 


i!.i.i>'ri!.\Tivi:  /./•;>>' ».v 


o!) 


Ti'ir/irr.     -■•  111  what  (lii'cctinii  luu-l  :i  lirmik  llmv? 

/'"Jills.  —  ■•  h  iiiii<l  tlow  (U)\vii  hill." 

••  It  iiiu>t  Inllow  the  \;illry.'" 

••  It  :il\v;iv-<  tlows  from  the  liiiili  phici's  {n  tiu'  low  oiifS 

••  It  runs  down  the  sttH'l)fst  slope." 

'I'liii'lH'r.  —  ••  ^\'llt■l'('  ilocs  it  ni:i!vr  its  lieilr 

/'//y)//N.  -—  ••  ,Iu>t    !n'twcr!l   two  >loprs."" 

•■  It  must  lie  the  lowr-t  [i;irt  of  the  vnllcy." 

•■  \\'llcn'   the  slope--    tVom    liotll   sides   meet."" 

•■  The  lied  mu>t   lie  nloim'  the  liottom  ol'  ;i  slo|ie.'' 

'/'<i(c/iir  (spi  iiikliiiL;'  moic  wat'T  into  one  ol'  the  iiasins). — 
•■  How  iniieh  land  does  a  luook  drain?  "" 

I'lifiils.  —  ••  It  drains  'Aw  whole  \alley."" 

••  It  drains  all  the  land  that  >lope->  towards  its  lied." 

■■The  water  llows  flom  the  sides  of  the  liilU  to  its  hed." 

'/'"' ■"■//'/•( -prinkliiiL!'  ".vater  npoii  the  top  ol'  the  I'ldi^e  that 
si'parate>  the  two  hasin-).  —  ••into  which  hrook  (loe.->  this 
Water  llow  'r  "' 

Pupils.  —  ■•  It   llows  into  hoth." 

••  .\.   part  llows  inti.)  each  '.rook." 

'r<  n,-li,r.  —  ••  Why  dor-ii"t  it  ;ill  llow  into  oiie'r  " 

/'/ijiils.  — -■■  r>eeailse  it  eau'l   llow  ii[i  hill." 

••It  !iiu^t   llow  down  the  sh  .pe."" 

••'i"lie  land  is  too  liiuh  iietween  them." 

The  teacher  now  point-  to  dil't'/reiit  part-  ol'  the  hiiihland. 
and  a-k-  to  wliich  1. rooks  the  >|ope>  heloii--.  The  piijiils 
answer  readily  iiiitii  the  tiiiLi'er  re>t-  upon  the  water-part iiiu'. 
and  the  elas-.  i>  in  douht.  (  )iie  linje  Liirl  •-U'_L'2e-t-.  •■  It 
iiiiLiiit  llow  down  eil  her  siile."' 

'/'■"'/"/■.—-■•(an     \-ou     point     to    aiiv    other     places     like 

thi--'r"    and   eau't'r   tillLier>   lie;jill    to  trace   the   line. 

'1\  iirJi,  r.  —  •■    \\,  which    \  alley  'ioe-   tiial    line    liclon-  ';  " 


60  THE   CIIIIJ)   Ay  I)    X  ATI' RE. 

PiipilH.  —  "  It  doesn't  beloiiu'  to  either." 

"  It  belongs  to  both." 

''  It  separates  the  valleys." 

"  Both  valleys  begin  at  that  line." 

Teacher.  —  "  On  whieh  slope  is  this  line?  " 

Pupils.  —  -'It  comes  just  between  the  slopes." 

'^  It  is  on  botli  slopes." 

"  This  line  is  just  where  the  slopes  meet." 

Teacher.  —  ''  Does  any  one  in  the  class  know  what  we  call 
sucli  a  line  as  tliis?"  As  no  one  answers,  tlie  teaclier  wi'ites 
the  word  "divide"  upon  the  blackhoai'd.  at  Uie  same  time 
l)ronouncing  it,  and  liien  asks.  •'  ^N  hy  is  it  called  a  divide?  " 

I^i'pils.  —  ••  Because  it  divides  the  land  into  two  \-alleys." 

'•  Because  it  sei)ara.tes  the  slojies." 

"  It  turns  the  rain  \n  two  directions." 

Teacher.  —  "For  this  njason  we  sometimes  call  it  a 
'  water-i)arting.'  "  This  name  is  also  written.  ^Vfter  indicat- 
ing on  the  map.  and  describing  the  low  water-pai'ting  between 
the  Amazon  and  La  Plata,  the  class  is  dismissed. 

iSecond  Lesson  on  Brooh'- Basins. 

Aim.  —  Same  as  in  previcjus  h^sson. 

I'KKi'AKA'riox.  —  I'^ach  [>upil  has  a  model-tin  and  sand. 

Teacher.  —  ••Make  three  valleys,  jdease.  side  liy  side, 
and  trace  a  bi'uok-bed  in  each.  Xcjw  ti'ace  the  watcr-])artiiig 
ar(Mmd  the  middle  \alU'y."  The  teacher  [lasscs  up  and 
down  the  aisles  to  see  that  all  understand,  and  then  adds, 
••  \\'e  often  call  a  valley  a  '  Imsiii.'  \['  it  is  small,  and 
contains  a,  brook,  what  kind  of  a  basin  might  we  name 
it?" 

••  lirook-basin."  sugLi'cst  the  pupils. 

Tcachrr.  —  ■•  1  f  it  contains  a  river?  pond?   lake?  ocean?" 


11.1.1-- ri!.\riVK  i.h'-'-ox 


«)1 


'rin'  luipils  n-aililv  ikuiic  tliriii. 

I'l'irl,!  r.  —  ••  Lddk  ;it  yinir  l»i'()<ik-li:isiiis.  umi  tell  iiic  the 
(.lil't'iTfiici'  lii-twci'U  ;i  wattT-iiarliiiu'  ainl  a  lirook-lu'ii. '" 

I'lip'ils.  —  ••■riic  IkmI  i<  in  llic  liotloiii  (.)!'  the  liasiii  :  tin- 
uahT-parliiiL;'.  at  \\\v  tdji." 

••Till'  wat'M'-iiartiuii'  si'[iarat('s  tin'  water:  llir  Wrdok-licd 
■  ■ollci-t-   il."' 

••'I'lic  ii[i|H'i'  ciluc-^  i)t'  the  slojH's  all'  \vatei'-l»aftiiiii<  :  the 
lou-.T  .',l-V-<.   l,i-Mok-!MMl>.-- 

••The  watiT-iiartiiiLZ  i'iiii>  ai'oiiinl  the  lia-^iii  :  the  lu-oolc-licd 
(•iit>  across. "" 

••'I'he  watei'-jiartiirj  -iii'i'diiinU  tlie  X'aUcv  :  the  li-.-ook-lieil 
niii<  ari  uiipI  tla-  lia>r  ot'  the  hilL"" 

••The  watia-iiaitiii'^  i-  a  li'h^e:    the   I  iii  m  ilv-ln'(l.  a  tii  uiLili. "" 

7''-^•/,,  /.  —  •■  M;iki'  iiDW.  jilca-~e.  a  lia>iii  ('(MitainiiiLi'  a  lirook 
ami    thrrr    t  ril  mtarir-.""       (  ••  Till 'iitai'v  '"    lia-    lieen    taiiiilit.  ) 

•■'I'lare  the  wal iT-jja it iii'j  ardiiipl  eadi  triliiilarv.  IIdw 
iiiaii\'  -trraiii^  ijraiii  llic  wlmh'  Iia-iiir 

Afti'T  -iiiiii'  (ii>i-ii-.-i.>ii.  the  ela---  ilrri(lc<  that,  a--  tiie  tritui- 
tai'ii'-  jiiin  till'  IifumIx.  tlii'ir  i-  r^'allx'  init  niic  mail!  stream 
with  many  I  iiaiii-hi--.  lilvc  ;i  t  ri'i'-t  riiiik  ainl  1  iraiirjie--.  The 
trai'jiri-  thi'll  a'I<l-.  ••  Ail  the  --tirams  witliiii  (Hie  liasiii  we 
call  a   •  >y-tmn."  a  •  1  irm  i|v--~\^ti'm. '  di-  a   •  riN'er-svstciii. ' 

'/''-"'7m,-.—  •■W'jiat  i^  tlic  ililli'naifc  iiftwcm  a  li;isiii  ami 
a  >\st('m  r 

Piil'Hs.  — ••  A  lia-~iii  i--  lainl  ;    a  s\-tciii  is  walrr."" 

••  A  ha-iii  is  mailc  "I'  -lupr-  :    a  -v-tcm.  <i|'  -trram-."' 

••  'I'he  >\"--lrm  <lr;iiii-.  1  he  lia-iii."" 

'I'hi'  jiiijiils  !ii:iki'  (•io----('ct  il  111^  ipf  thi'ii'  iiH'ilfls  (-IT  majt 
mi  \\.  7-i)-  aiiij  ilraw  them  in  llicir  s|.,,.tcii-lii)i  iks.  phiriiii;-  the 
iiaini'--  ••  wa1ri--|iarti!i'_;'.""  ■•  hri  h  i]\-l  icil  "'  miil  ••>l(i]ie"  in 
thi'ir  apprnjiriati'  iilarrs. 


62  THE   CHILD    AX7)    XATCRE. 

For  iiiKiginution  work,  the  teaclior  gives  ;i  short  aoeount 
of  the  voy:ige  of  .Marquette  down  the  Mississipi)i. 

To  awala'ii  the  sensU)ilities  and  link  tliem  to  imture.  Ilio 
fcjllowing  lieautiful  i)oein  l)y  Longfellow  is  read  in  closing 
tlie  lesson  :  — 

THE  I5ROOK  AND  THE  WAVE. 

"  The  hi-oolclet  eaine  iVoni  the  mountain, 
As  sanp;-  the  hard  of  old, 
Iiunning  willi  feet  of  silver 
Over  the  sands  of  gold! 

"  Far  away  in  tlK>  l)riny  ocean 

There  roUed  a.  turbulent  wave, 
Now  singing  along  tlie  sc'a-bi'acii, 
Xow  howling  along  the  cave. 

"  And  (he  brooklet  has  found  the  billow, 
Though  they  llowcd  so  far  ajtart. 
And  lias  filled  willi  its  In'shness  and  sweelness 
That  turbulent,  bitter  la^ai't !  " 

This  beautiful  gem  is  well  worthy  of  a  place  in  nienioi-y's 
casket. 

lliird  Jjcssnv  on  llrcxjl'-ltdsijis. 

Am. — To  stu<ly  in  detail  a  jiarticadar  l)i-o()l<d)as:n.  and  to 
cori'ect  erroneous  ideas  if  anv  have  (a'ept  in. 

1'i;ki'.vi;a'i  ION.  — ('lass  with  nuxhd  -  (ins  down  liv  the 
meadow  lirook. 

'/'riir/ii-r.  — ■•I'oiut  toward  the  north,  south,  east,  west: 
north-ea'^t.  south-east,  soidh-wesl.  uoi'lh-west.  1  )es(a-ibe  the 
sloiK'  west   of    tlie  iirook.   l)]ea-^e.    .M:iude.*" 


IIJJ'STIIATIVK    /./.-.ssr^v 


(13 


jri/n].,  —  --'rin'  >l()ji('  i^  at  lii'-l  ui'ailual.  'I'lu'ii  il  i>  vi'i'v 
^trt'p  for  alioiit  til'ty  tVet.  ami  on  llic  hill  U  gradual  auaiii. 

Tni,-],.,-.  —  •■  Dorril'r  the  >l(i[>r  lowan  I  ihc  -oiUh.  [ilca-c. 
Flora." 

r'Inrti.  —  ■•Tlu'  >\ti[>c  to  the  soulli  i>  urailual  just  as  faf  as 
\\v  can  sec  it . "' 

'/'<(v:/,('/\  —  ••Till'  iioiilicni  >lo[u'.  Helen." 

Helen.  —  ••The  noi'lheni  .vlope  is  lii'a'lnal  also.  alnio-~t  to 
the  head  (if  the  hiook.  'I'hei'e  it  hei'onio  uiure  ahru[it  iieai' 
.^(luantuni  Street."" 

'J'iiAc/)i-r.  —  ■•'l"he  eastei'li.  (ifaee."' 

(;,■<"■'.  —  •■ 'l"he  ea^telii  is  like  the  western,  except  that  it 
is   loll^iT."' 

'I'l'ic/ii'i-. —  ••  ^'eiii  may  all  folh.w  the  west  slope  until  Volt 
leach  the  \vater-[>ailinu.  Now  _\(.ii  iiia\'  follow  the  water- 
liartiiiu'  around  the  lia-iii  to  the  op|io-ite  >ide."  Thi-  joiiriiev 
eoni|ileted.  t  Ih-  liU[.iU  take  jMisitiou-  alonu'  t  lie  al  i|  il[il  >lo|ie. 
o\  ei'liiokiirj  the  \allev.  and  mod.-I  tla'  entire  hrook-1  ia->in. 
'i'his  eoinpleles  the  h'-sou.  (  )n  th<'  way  haei^  to  sejiool.  the 
teacher  (le^eiilie->  the  wa !  cr- [ 'a  rt  i  uu  ol'   the  M  i--i->iiii.i  liasiii. 


\\\\.  — To  study  tile  >lopes  of    the  lia-ill. 

i'l.i  I'Ai;  \  Hon.  —  i-'.aeh  puiill  ha-  a  sketch-hook".  ino(lel-tiii 
and  >aiid.  in  the  chi-->-ri » un. 

'I\.irliir. — -••You  nia\-  iiiodi'l  the  1  nook-lia-in  ju-t  as  you 
did  vcsti'i'dav.  .Maik  the  waler-|  lai  t  iiiu'  .and,  1  iji  lols-hcd  on 
your  models.  Now  --how  the  water-part  iiiu'  h\'  a  dotted  hue 
111   your   iiote-liook- :    al-o   (Iraw   ihe   hronk.      ^how    all    -tee[i 

[ihlee-   ill   tllc  -h  i|>e-.    !'V   -liadiuu'  ""    (  -ce   map   oil    \K    T.".  )  . 

Tliis  was  the  (JiawiiiLi'  lesson  for  tin'  ila\'. 


64  TllJiJ   CHILD   AND   X  ATT  HE. 

First  Lesson  on  Delta. 

X(rrK.  —  Before  leiiviui!;  the  school,  tlie  tcaclier.  in  the 
presenee  of  the  chiss.  wtu's  soine  iiuul  in  a  glass  of  water, 
and  sets  it  on  a  table. 

Aim. — To  teach  how  deltas  are  formed. 

Piu'.i'AUATioN. — Class  with  note-hooks  near  a  i)ai-t  of  tlie 
hrook  where  the  current  is  rapid,  while  just  above  and  l)elow 
it  is  vc.vy  slow. 

Teaclier.  —  "What  difference  can  you  see  be'tween  the 
1)rook  here  and  down  there?  " 

J'lqu'ls.  —  "Tlie  water  is  swifter  here." 

•'The  brook  is  widei'  l)elow,  and  the  water  hardly  moves." 

'•  The  l)ed  is  steeper  here." 

"  Here  the  bed  is  rocky,  but  down  there  it  is  mudd^^" 

Teacher.  —  "You  may  stir  this  yellow  clay  in  the  water 
above,  and  watch  it  carefully.      Tell  me  all  that  takes  place." 

l^Kpils.  —  "  The  water  is  all  nniddy  now." 

"  It  is  so  muddy  that  we  can't  see  the  pebbles  whei'c  it  is 
so  I'apid." 

"  Down  there  the  nuiddy  water  moves  very  slowly." 

"  It  is  S'preading  toward  Itoth  l)anks." 

" 'i'he  mud  is  scltlinu-  to  tlie  bottom  below  tlie  i';ipids." 

"The  water  is  clearer  now." 

"Tlie  clay  is  covering  tlie  black  bed  all  over." 

'Teaclwr.  —  ••  \ow  look  at  the  i';i))i(ls." 

I*i('j)iis.  —  "  The  w;iter  i'^  clear  ;ig;iiii." 

"  The  chiy  couldn't  st()[)  tliei'c." 

Teacher.  —  "  Why  not  ?  " 

J'djiils.  —  •'  Th(>  water  wnshcd  it  down," 

"It  is  too  swift  there." 

Teaclier.  —  "  Now  stii'  si»me  lii'aNcl  intn  the  rapids." 


iLU'sTiiA  11  r/;  /,/•;>. so. vs. 


0.") 


I'li/iils.  —  ••'I'lic  pclililcs  sinl\.  I'Ut  the  saiiil  '^ots  (lowii 
strcaiii. 

••  'I'llC    SMllil    i-<    ScttlillLI,'   ll'iWll    tllCl'C." 

••  It   i^  liiiikiim'  :i  littlr  iiMiik   iu>t   licldW  tlir  nipi'I-;." 

■•  It  iloiTt  u'o  so  t';iL'  as  the  clay  wcnl."  Tliis  is  coiiTctcd 
l.y  ■•  It  .locsiTl  Lio." 

I'l  (i>-ln  r.  —  ••  ( )iir  tiiiir  is  jiast.  ami  \vc  imisl  I'ctuni  imw." 
()ii  thr  wav  liack.  the  teacher  threw  a  haii<ll'iil  of  iiiavel  into 
Ihc  wind,  merely  exelaiiiiiiiL:'.  ••  Loojv  I 

Pupils.  — ■••The  pelililes  eaiiie  straiL^ht  iluwii." 

••The  wind  eari'i(.'d  the  sand  a  litth'  wav." 

••  Tlie  (lii>t  is  ,-,till  Mowiii-."' 

7'' ac//' ;•.  ^  ••  Now  the  air  is  still.  I  will  throw  some 
more." 

I'lijii/s.  —  ■■  II  all  came  >1  raiLiht  down." 

••  The  du-l  --taid  ill  the  air  a.  lilllc  while." 

IJei  inniiiL:  to  the  x-hoolroom.  they  lind  tlie  ulass  of  wat(M'  is 
clear  ai:ain.  and  the  mud  spread  in  the  hoUoni  of  llie  ula-s. 

S.. ;,>,,!     I.,  .<.<,.,,     in.,      I),  I  hi. 

The  leachei  lakes  the  class  to  a  street  uutter  near  liy. 
where  a  recent  i-ain-->lorni  has  \vM->Iied  the  s.-unl  iVom  the 
hanks.  ■.\\^^\  formed  liul,.  deltas  all  alonu'  the  sides. 

'I',  ,,rJii-r.  '  -  •■  A\"hal   ni.-ide  tho-e  liiilc  sand-!'anks?  " 

/'ii/iils.  — ■•The  watei'  must  /"'  maile  iim.''  ••  .Mii>t  ha\(' 
made  them."  eonccts  the  teacher.  (|niilly. 

■•  It,  washed  down  I'rom  the  sidi'-." 

'•  They  settled  from  the  w.-iicr."" 

'•  Why.  we  nrade  one  in  the  I, rook  like  ihes,.  :  " 

■•  I  lei'e  is  a  little  \  allcN'  in  the  hank  w  iiere  the  -and  wa-hed 
out." 

••  It   takes  iMiile  swift   \\ate|-  to  caii\    -and.'' 


OG  THE   CHILD   AND   N ATI' HE. 

"  The  water  on  these  banks  would  lie  swift." 

"  The  water  in  the  gutter  d(jn't  flow  swift  enouii'h  to 
wash  it  away."  "Don't"  and  "swift"  are  replaeed  h}' 
'*  doesn't  "  and  "  swiftly  ;  "  then  the  sentence  is  repeated. 

Just  as  long  as  the  children  are  looking  and  thinking,  even 
though  they  are  not  speaking,  tin;  teacher  remains  silent. 
When  the  interest  Hags,  another  question  is  asked,  '•  Are  the 
))anks  all  sand?  " 

I'upils.  —  '•  'J'he  top  is  black  loam." 

"Here  are  some  pel)l)les,  too." 

Teacher.  —  "  Was  any  of  the  loam  washed  down?  " 

PiijiiJs.  —  "  'i'liere  is  some  down  thci'e." 

'•  It  is  si)read  all  along  the  bottom  of  llie  gutter." 

"  'J'liat's  just  the  way  it  was  in  the  bi'ook." 

"  And  there  ai'c  the  pebl)les  in  the  liollows  where  the  sand 
washed  out." 

Teacher. — "If  I  were  to  throw  loam  sand,  and  gravel 
into  a  stream  of  water,  which  would  settle  first?  " 

Piipih.  —  "  Tlie  pebbles,  then  the  sand,  and  then  loam." 
comes  the  generalization. 

Teacher.  —  "  Tlie  sand.  clay,  loam  etc..  in  running  water, 
we  call  'silt. — s-i  1-t.'  When  must  a  stream  lose  all  its 
silt?  " 

J*iipiJs.  —  "  AVhen  it  stoi)S  flowing." 

"  When  it  moves  very  slowly." 

"  When  it  Hows  into  wat(4'  that  doesn't  move." 

"  After  it  h;!s  stood  a  long  lime  like  the  water  in  the  glass." 

Teaclicr.  —  ■•  If  a  brook  oi'  river  carrying  a  larg<'  cpiantity 
of  silt  flows  into  a  lake,  wliat  becomes  of  the  silt?  " 

Piipih.  —  "  It  must  settle  in  the  lake." 

"It  would  settle  when  it  readied  still  water." 

" 'I'lie  mud  would  mak<'  a  bank  tliei'e." 


1 1.  I.I  '>  TiiA  11 1  •  /•;  /.  i-:sso\s. 


ti' 


••  It  would  spi'f.'ul  .'iliout  the  mouth  of  tlu'  i-i\fr."" 
Ti-arJnr.  —  ••  Lainl  HKidc  of  sill  ili:)!  I  ;is  x'IIKmI  nciir  tlic 
mouth  of  -1  .strcaiu.  we  cnll  a  ■  <lcUa.'  A\  rile  il  in  your  iiotc- 
tiook^  as  1  -lu'lL  —•(!-('- 1-t -a.'  1  u  oiu'  next  h-v^on.  1  will  >lio\v 
vou  some  iiiclui't's  of  (Icllas  so  lai'Lii'  tlial  citit-s  liaxc  hrcu 
hull!  u[io!i  thcui.  This  has  lu-eu  a  loiiu  K's><iii.  aud  uo\v  we 
must  hasti'u  hack  to  >ciiool."" 

Oil    the   (lay  I'oUowiu-.   tin-   teacher   tells   of   the   woudert'ul 
deltas  of  the  I'o  and  (  iau^vs. 


Suggestions.  —  The  aiH)\"e  lessons  afe  iuteuded  to  illustrate 
oue  \va\'  of  uiifoldiuij,'  eliild-eharactei'  while  leadiuu'  [iu[)ils  to 
oh~.ei\e  aud  >tudy  the  forms  and  system  of  uatui'al  draiuatie 
of  their  di>t  I'iet .  .Much  luoi'e  ahout  1  irook-1  lasins  aud  deltas 
lemaius  to  he  discovered  hvthe  liUpiN  under  the  Liuidauee 
of  the  teacher:  hut  enough  h:is  heeu  L:i\eu  to  Uldieate  how 
liV  the  -IUil\-  of  thi-  iiue  Ueiuhhoriiuiiil  lhe\-  mav  he  iu-e|iai'ed 
fill'  the  ^tiidy  of  forei-li   laud-. 

ParliiMilar  alteiilion  i>  a'^aiu  called  to  the  imiiortaiiee  of 
cult  ixatiii:;'  t  he  iuiauiuat  iou  of  ureal  natural  features  of  the 
earth'-  rcliet',  hy  descrihiu^:'  ihem  to  the  eiiildreu  a>  xiou  a- 
the  tv|ie-  ha\f  heeii  -tudied  in  iialiire.  'I'lilis  the  little  jila- 
teau  should  lead  to  xime  Lireater  oiie.  e.u..  I'liihel  ;  a  le>-oii 
ou  the  samly  field  ou  a  hoi  >iimmer  <la\'  -liould  he  followed 
hy  picture-  aud  stories  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara:  the  little 
|icuiu-ula  juttii!'.:'  into  the  lioiid  should  call  to  uiiud  Italy 
'•xteudiiiLi'  into  t  lie  .Mediterranean:  the  thick  'uro\e  hecouics 
a  Lii'eat  >el\a:  the  meadow  iiroadcn-  to  a  i.a  i'lala  \allc\-; 
the  little  ravine  ris,.^  to  a  cahoii  iA'  \\\r  (  oloiado.  or  a  ureal 
llolaii  I'ass:  in  short.  e\'erv  little  form  hecouie-  the  repre- 
sentative of  a.  family  of  ureal  i-r  nat  ui  a!  I'^al  nic-.  till  t  he  whole 
^vorld  lies  pictured  in  tlie  -cliool  di-lrici. 


68 


THE   C'lIfLJ)   AXn    XATUHE. 


To  provoiit  the  pupils  from  i)ii:igiiiiiii>'  I'ulsc  location,  us 
they  naturally  will  I'or  t'vcry  i)lac('  mentioned,  the  true  one 
should  l)e  (leseribed  as  nearly  as  possible,  —  its  direction  at 
least  from  tlie  school  l)einu'  indicated.  It  is  perhaps  advis- 
able to  locate  such  places  upon  maps,  as  the  children  arc.  in 
a  measure,  thus  taught  to  associate  their  conce|,)ts  with  the 
map  signs.  The  suggestioix  is  not  that  <iU  the  plateaus, 
deserts  etc.  should  be  desci'il>ed  and  located  at  this  time, 
but  only  one  or  two  of  each.  The  cliicf  ahn  should  be  to 
develoj)  the  power  of  imagining  great  unseen  foi'ms,  and  not 
the  mere  memory  of  locations. 

Another  important  element  is  worthy  of  especial  notice 
here,  viz.,  the  use  of  gems  of  [)octry  as  a  means  of  leading 
the  childi'cn  to  a  more  i'ellccti\-e  and  I'clining  study  of  natui'c. 
Ivittle  forms  whose  beauty  and  k'ssons  lie  hidden  deep  are 
oft  unveiled  at  tlie  touch  of  the  [)oet  mind.  These  lessons 
sink  deepest  wlicn  we  are  drawn  near(.'st  to  nature  in  studv. 
Thus  tliat  wliicli  lirst  inspired  the  pioet's  thought  I)ecomes  the 
language  by  which  we  inlevpi'et  it. 

What  a  companion  we  lind  in  Hie  moon  when  its  full 
shining  face  calls  up  the  voices  of  the  past  to  tell  how  — 

'•  TTcsixM'iis,  llial  li>i1 
Tlic  sfiU'i'y  liosi,  roilc  liriulifcsl.  till  llic  iiuioii. 
liisiim-  in  clouilcd  majesty,  at  lciit;'lli 
Ajipari'iil  i|iifcii.  mivrilcil  licr  pcrrlc^s  iiulit. 
Ami  (Ti'i-  tlic  (lai'k-  Iht  si  her  maiil  Ic  threw.""  —  ^til/roN-. 


■■  ll('a\"('ll"s  rl}()li   \;mll 

SlinMfd  Willi  stars  uiiu!  Icrahlv  lii'lulit, 

'I'liro"  wliicli  Die  m(i(in"s  uiu'IoihIciI  m-andcur  rolls. 

Srclii-;  like  a  cailoliV   wllirli    I,o\c  li;illi  sprraii 

Td  iiirlaiii  I  lie  sliM'piii^  worlii."  —  Sii  i-;i,i,i:\ . 


ILJJSTHA  I  n  K    LKsso.y 


(;*t 


•■  111  t'nll-(irln'(l  li'lui'v  youdi'i-  iiioDii  ili\iii.' 
l.'i.lN  Ihroii-li  the  (lark  l.lii-'  .Ici'lli-; 
llfiiiMili  her  steady  ra>', 
Tilt'  ilc^rri  i-iivK'  s[nva,h 
l.iki'  llic  nmiid  ocimii  -ii'illi'd  with  thr  .^ky. 
I  low  liraiitilul  is  ui^lil  I  ■■  —  S(ti   iiii:\  . 

How  idtcii  I'.MVC  (Mil'  liioliulits  hri'ii  luriicd  iiiWMlil  ami 
liaclxwanl  when  cvciiiim'  has  rccaUci)  siidi  licautirul  lines 
as.  — 

'■Silently  line  liy  eiie,  in  the  inliiiiti'  nieaildws  III'  !iea\en, 

IMessiinied  Ihi'  IdVeh   stai-s.  the  fef^el-nie-llntN  iif   the  an-vj,-.'" 


Or 


■|'hi'  niL;lit  lialh  a  tlinii-aiid  eyr-~.  the  day  hiit  (Hie. 
And  ihr  li-!ii  dt'   the  w  hule  da>  dic^  with  tie'  -.'ttinu  -iin 
'I'lic  iniiid  hath  a  thnti^aiid  cy-.,  ili,>  IhmH  hut    mie. 
And  the  liuiii   i>\    the  w  luile  lilr  ilir-  w  hell   l<i\e  i>  dnii,'."" 


As  tlie  piijiils  -Uidv  raeli  t'ofni  (if  land  and  walei'.  ri'ad  lo 
llicni  (If  lia\'e  tlieiii  fead  whal  liie  jmets  lia\'c  said  aluail  il. 
'i'liis  line  of  wofk  at'tni'U  an  e\-eelleiil  i  hiihuI  unit  \  td  (ailliwate 
a  ta^le  I'm-  chntee  lilci'aliire.  whieli  iiiii-l  siift'ly  aid  uicatlv  ni 
shajiin;^'  tlie  |iiijiirs  wlioh'  life.  IJeaeli  out  towai'd  the  niiiid> 
(d'  childhoiid.  and  liioiild  the  de>iics  I'oflliat  whleh  is  '^oiid. 
and  title.  l)ra\v  tliis  \cil  id'  [unity  ahottt  t  iieif  \  i  itiie_;  li\es. 
\\  iM\e  into  tiieif  t'orniiiiL;'  eliai'aeter^  tiie  noliK  st  thoiiuhts  id' 
the  iiolih'^t  men  and  women,  and  unless  iheif  minds  ate 
ah'e.'idv  warped  mid  nairowed  h\  veaiN  of  low  readiie.;.  tlie\ 
win  natiifally  iiieline  to  that;  which  i>  ptife:  t'of  to  see  t  rnt  h 
is  to  love  it. 

\\  hat  eompanions  the  ehildrtai  shall  ehoox'  in  lil'e  iieeoiiies 
then  a  i]nestioii  ol'  L;Ta\e  re>|ioiisiliilit  \'  with  the  teaehef;    and 

ihel'e    sek'llis    lo    lu'     no    helter    \\  a  \'     to    -utile     lhi>    ehuiee     tjian 


70 


THE   CHILI)  AND   NAT  I 'HE 


to  li'ive  tlu'in  carl}'  coinpaiiionsliip  witli  n;Lliiit'',s  [lorts  and 
authors.  A  U'w  of  the  [)iir('sl  liciiis  sliouM  he  (•oimnitted  to 
memory,  as  they  will  surely  exert  a  heiielieial  iniluenee  in 
the  eiiltiire  of  the  sensibilities.  Select  only  the  simplest  and 
clioieest,  and  al)o\e  all  preserve  the  intt'rest. 


V.    u  ipj'jsa  Tin:  nisrinc r. 

Maii-readinu,'  is  one  of  the  most  imporlant  olijeets  of 
Li'coiii'aphieal  teaehinu'.  Before  a  [>ui>il  can  read  a  map,  he 
must  beeomc^  familiar  with  the  features  re[)resented,  and 
must  \vA\Q  assoeiatcfl  with  etich  of  them  ils  eorresj)ouding' 
sisiii  used  on  the  ma[).  As  a  pre})aration  for  sueh  readiuii', 
tiie  i)upils  should  draw  surh  a  })ortiou  of  their  school  district 
as  includes  the  pi'iiici|>;d  foiMus  of  land  and  outlines  of  water 
in  their  various  relations,  makini^'  use  of  siu'us  similar  to  those 
on  their  i)rinted  maiis.  dissociation  is  thus  made  lietweiMi  the 
eoiicepts  and  their  eoi'J'esixjudinLi-  siLius.  so  thai  the  latter  ui)on 
a  map  will  recall  tin-  former,  and  t'ualile  the  chiM  to  ai)proxi- 
male  the;  ri'ality.  'I'hen,  too.  the  effort  of  measuring  great 
distances  by  [laciug.  and  ol"  reducing  to  a  V(M'y  small  scale 
aid  greatly  in  comprehending  the  vastness  of  the  area 
include(l  in  an  ordinarv  map. 

Dining  the  study  of  the  fo)'ms  of  land  and  water,  the  pupils 
have  doubtless  modelled  and  drawn  imicli  of  the  disti'ict  ; 
and  the  principal  w(.)i'k  now  will  be  to  reduce  all  to  a  seah*  of 
I'epi'cseufation.  A  simple  ex|)laualion  of  the  scale  may  have 
been  found  necessary  in  the  precedi U'j.'  woi'k  :  l>ut  not  u 
detaile(l  stmly  of  it.  such  as  follows  in  this  ste|). 

We  niay  map  the  district  by  both  modelling  and  drawing. 
'I'lic  foi'mei'.  being  nuich  the  simpler,  natui'allv  precedes,  and 
pi-epares  chi<'llv  b)r  I'cadiug  relief  maps,  while  tlie  latter  paves 
the  wa v  ti  1  coiilour-readiuL;. 


MAl'l'l.X'.     I  UK    l)I>IUl(  r. 


71 


Tile  Scale.  —  Si-lt'ct  two  oliji'cts.  ami  iiif;t>uii'  I  lie  ili>tan<-(,' 
iK-tWL'fii  tlu-in.  v.'ji..  two  ti'ccs  i-iulit  i)aiT>  ajiart.  (all  alti'H- 
tion  to  the  (lilticiiltv  of  drawiiiu'  ^o  Ioiil;'  a  line  ii[iiiii  [laprr. 
ami  ask  tlif  puiiiU  to  diaw  one.  allowing-  one  inch  for  cai-h 
pace:  then  (.uic-lia!!'  ami  oiic-iiiiartfi'  inch.  (ii\c  inanv 
cxcii-isrs  ot'  this  kiml.  u^iiiu'  (lil't'crciit  scales.  Let  an  inch 
taki'  the  place  of  a  yard,  then  four  [laccs.  cie.  :  Imi  let  e\eiy 
drawinu"  re[iie>ent  a  real  di-lance. 

Next  couiliine  distance  and  direction.  I-"or  exaniplc.  a 
fence  runs  due  north  ami  >outh.  and  is  twciitv-t'oin-  [laces 
lonu'.  I-"ix  u[ioii  one  side  of  the  paper  a-,  north,  and  then 
draw  the  line,  allowinu'  oiie-eiuhth  of  an  inch  to  a  pace. 
Au'ain.  north-east  iVoui  a  certain  tree  there  i>  a  lariie  siduc. 
distant  sixty  ikuh's.  Draw  the  line  joinimj,'  tlicin.  u|ion  the 
scale  of  one-third  of  an  im-h  to  ten  pace-.  Then  re[irc-cnt 
the  lioundarics  i)f  >urfaces  :  e.u'..  the  top  of  a  taMe  eiiiht  hv 
foiii'  feet,  scale  one-eiL;iith  of  an  inch  to  a  foot  :  or  a  Held 
two  humlred  tiy  sixty  yaril>.  upon  the  >cale  of  forlv  vards  to 
an  inch. 

Finally  'ii\e  exci'cises  coml liniiiLT  lengths  and  relati\-e 
direction-  of  lioundarics.  ()iie  prohleiu  niav  be  to  d,ra w  the 
sclioolrooni.  u-iiiu'  t!ie  se;de  of  one-eiLj.hth  of  an  inch  to  a 
font.  loeatiiiL;'  (loors.  window-,  desk-,  jilatforins  etc.:  then 
re-draw  upon  a  smaller  scale.  v.'S..  om-tenth  or  one--ixteent !i 
of  an  inch  for  the  same  distance.  l-'dUow  hva  jilaii  of  the 
\\-lidK'  llooi  (if  the  liiiildinu'  on  the  scale  of.  for  instance,  one- 
ciLihth  of  an  inch  to  a  yanl.  As  ^ircater  ai'cas  .-n'e  included 
in  lh<^  drawings,  reiluce  the  si-de.  In  plaltiiiLi  the  yaril  and 
district,  the  pace  may  lie  made  the  iniit  of  measure.  i-aiiplo\- 
similar  devices  also  in  //^/'/' ///'//;/  £;'rou| is  of  natural  I'caluri'- 
of  relief.  \\dien  the  use  nf  the  -'-ah'  i-  midei -t.  n  1. 1,  we  may 
iicLiin  llie  Work  of   ma[ipinL:'  tlu'  neii:li!iorli(  md. 


72 


'IIIIC    (111 LI)   AM)    yATUUE. 


Modellinij'  and  Drawing  the  District.  —  As  has  alii'adv 
been  stated,  tlie  modelling  and  drawing-  should  he  used 
together,  the  fornier  leading  rather  to  observe  elevation  and 
surface-slope,  the  latter,  outlines  of  forms,  'i'he  (le\-iees 
eoml)ined  afford  the  necessary  o[)!»ortunity  of  associating 
the  signs  of  the  m;ip-language  with  their  appropriate  ideas, 
—  thus  preparing  the  p>upils  to  ivad  foreign  mai)s  which 
are  merely  new  relations  of  the  familiar  forms  of  our  school 
district.  This  shows  the  necessity  of  emidoving  the;  same 
map-language  as  that  ccMitaineil  in  the  text-books. 

Such  u  part  of  our  district  has  l)een  selected  as  will 
include  in  (.)ur  mai)s  tlie  two  brook-basins  in  w]ii<-h  we  have 
already  disc(.)vercd  how  the  land  is  drained,  and  tlie  tvpcs  of 
all  land  and  water  forms.  This  accords  witli  the  previ(»iis 
statement  (p.  l."))  that  we  should  study  such  portions  of  our 
district  as  contain  the  forms,  foives  and  conditions  that 
sliould  make  up  the  child's  world-picture. 

Less'iii.  T.  — T(^  determine  the  bounds  of  the  ma.])s.  the 
pupils  lii'st  locate  S(|uantum  Street  (see  maps.  p.  7;!).  I'un- 
ning  by  the  school-yard  towards  llie  north-uorth-t'ast.  Thev 
then  walk  noilh-north-east  U)  I'itt  Street  which  tliey  fmd 
entei-s  S(|iiantum  lifty  paces  from  the  school-yard.  These 
facts  ai'c  carefully  recorded  in  the  [)upils'  note-books.  This 
junction  of  sti'cets  at,  A,  we  select  for  a.  starting-point. 
l''i-om  A,  we  disco\cr  that  I'ilt  Street  extends  towards  the 
north-north-west,  that  S(|uantnm  Street  bends  to  the  noi'th- 
east,  and  the  portion  that  i»asses  the  sc]io()l-vard  runs  t(nvards 
th<'  south-sDulh-wcst. 

The  pupils  ;ii-e  now  se[)aratcd  Into  thi'ce  u'roups  for  pacing 
in  the  three  directions.  One  pally  is  iustmcted  to  [)a.ce  i'itt 
Street  to  tiic  watei-  parting.  \\.  beyond  the  ])ond  :  another. 
Sqriantum    Street   to   the   s])iings.    1);   the   lhii'<l.  to    ilaiicoek 


iKi'niLij   Srh'j  ,1  0: 


i  4  TllJ^J   CI  1 1 L  I)   A  .X 1)    y  ATI'  li  E. 

Street,  B.  All  the  pu[)ils  will  not,  of  course,  r(=turn  the 
same  number  of  |):u,'es  foi'  the  same  distanee,  but  we  may  use 
the  average.  J'^very  meml)er  of  the  class  is  required  to  pace 
one  of  these  distances,  in  order  that  tlie  maps  which  are  to 
l)e  made  on  a  small  scale  may  vividly  recall  the  larg'e  area 
included.  The  efforts  made  in  walking  the  distance,  and  the 
accom[)anying  sense  of  fatigue  are  the  best  means  of 
impressing  the  dimensions. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  note  here,  in  the  same  connection, 
that  uniseular  effort  n)ay  often  be  made  a  means  of  attention 
to  forms  and  motions.  For  exainple,  a  class  of  so-called 
"  mis(.'hiev()us  "  boys,  [)ossessing  such  activi'  minds  and 
b(jdies  that  the  t.eachei'  had  not  given  IIhmu  enough  work  to 
keej)  them  l)usy.  and  to  whom  fun  was  merely  a  safety-valve 
to  their  i)ent-u[)  spirit  of  a,ctivity,  received  many  of  their 
most  ini[)r('ssive  lessons  by  gi\ing  vent  U)  their  restlessness 
under  proi)er  guidance.  Thus,  when  all  other  devices  had 
failed  to  stinmlate  their  observation  to  th(!  dt-gree  of  slo[)e 
(.)f  a  certain  hillside,  they  were  allowed  to  race  at  full  speed 
from  the  foot  to  the  top,  and  then  to  walk  .sloic/;/  down.  Xo 
further  exci'cise  was  nei'dcd  to  im|)i'('ss  them  with  a  sense 
of  the  abru[)tness  of  that  slope.  At  anc^ther  time  their  atten- 
tion to  the  current  of  a  l)r(^()k  was  secau'ed  liv  requi'sting 
them  to  throw  sticks  into  the  water,  and  walk  for  a  long 
di.->tancc  down  sti'eiim.  Isccping  just  al)i'east  their  tiny  crafts, 
thus  varyinu'  tlicjp  own  spcc(|  to  cori'cspond  with  the  current 
in  diffci-cnl  p.-irt-^  of  Ihc  brook-bc(.l.  An  ounce  of  tact  is 
woi'th  a  ton  of  I'od. 

lint  to  retui'U  to  our  majjpiug.  The  returns  make  I'itt 
Sti'cet  toui'  Ir.iudi'cd  Mild  lil'ty  paces:  S(jiiant  inii.  six  hundred 
paces  to  the  springs,  and  four  hundred  paces  to  Hancock 
Sli'cet.        The    whole    class    now    pacrs    IVoiii    15   to    the   little 


MAi'i'iy(.   Till-:  iJi>ini<  r. 


(ilutY  ('.  lifvoiiil  the  lirook.  ami  liml  it  to  In-  six;  lumdnil 
l»acrs.  ilaiu-ock  Sti'ft't  extends  diU'  iii)itli-Wf>t  ami  south- 
east. 

Ketlll'llillU'  ti)  the  S(;ho()l.  eaeh  l)U[)il  ei)ll>tiuets  ail  outline 
mail  of  the  ineluded  (li>triet.  on  the  scale  of  twenty-live 
|)aee-<  to  (jue-eiii'htli  of  an  inch.  Fir^t.  a  eoinpa^s  eanl  is 
drawn  in  one  eorner  of  the  i)aper.  indii-atiuL;'  at  lea>t  the 
eai'dinal  direetious.  A  point  is  tlien  lixe(l  upon  for  A.  ami 
from  it  S<|uantuin  street  is  drawn  nortli-ea-t  (>ix  humli'ed 
paces)  three  inches,  soutli-south-west  (four  hundi'ed  [lact'^) 
two  inches:  Pitt  Street  nortli-iiorth-we>t  (  t'oin-  hundred  ami 
lifty  paces)  two  inclie>  and  a  (juarlci-.  l-'roni  \\.  Hancock  is 
al.-o  added  north-wot  (>ix  hundred  pace>)  three  indio.  A 
rectaiiLile  is  next  drawn.  enclo>iiiu'  tlicse  sli'cets  liy  lines 
extcndiii'j,'  due  norili  and  sdulli.  and  ea^t  and  wc--l.  l^'roin 
niea^uremciits  already  made,  tlie  ^dioi  .1-yard  may  lie  diawn 
fi-onlinu'  Nijuantuiu  Street  (lifiy  l^•e■c-)  ouc-i'ouitii  of  an  incli 
from  A.  Tlie  moulded  m:ip  mav  lie  m:ide  ou  the  scale  of  ten 
jiaces  t()  oiic-ciuhl  li  of   :ni  inch  ou  the  model-tins. 

'L'luis  f:ir  we  ha\c  jocntrd  aililici:il  iioinid<  only,  liut  in  (MU' 
next  lc--ou  the  -ti-ccts  will  -cr\-c  as  lia-e-lines  for  mca>in-im:' 
and  joi-aiiu:^  tlic  natural  t'catiuc-. 

L<  ssuii  [I. — SiMi-tiuLi.'  out  auain  with  iiotc-liook-;.  on  the 
next  pica-ant  'lav.  wi'  record  the  t'dllowinu- oli-er\'at  ioii~.  and 
mea-uicmcnt>  :  >i|iiantinu  Street  >lopc>  downwaid  fiom  A 
toward  1  lanc(  M'k.  two  huudrcil  and  tit't  v  pace--  to  wliere  a  little 
hrook  llows  under  the  roail.  j-'roni  tlii-  point,  the  -ti'cel  ri>es 
■gradually  toward-  \\.  We  follow  the  ln'ook  ca-i  ^m  irth-ea-t 
three  liundi-cd  paces  to  the  Spot  where  it  turn-  aliruptly  to 
the  I'iuht.  cniitinuiiiL:'  one  hundied  and  lil'l\'  pai-c-  fai'thcr  to  a 
lieautifiil  -priu'^'. 

A  -mall  tri'iularv  join-  ihe  lii'uok  a!   tlie  I'cud.  :!•  i\\  iui;'  froie 


7(1 


TllJi   CliiLD   Ay  I)   NATURE. 


the  noi'Ui-f'asi  aliout  :i  luiiidicd  [nices.  After  [);issinjj,'  under 
Squantum  Street,  it  widens  into  a  little  pond  ;  thenee  eon- 
tinuing  nnder  Iluneock  a  hundred  [jaces  from  B,  it  finds  its 
way  across  a  hroad  salt-marsh  to  the  Neponset  Iviver,  which 
can  1)e  seen  in  the  distance,  tlowing  towards  Boston  Harbor. 
Our  modelling  and  drawing  lessc)ns  for  the  day  consist  in 
adding  these  observations  to  our  ma[)S. 

Lesson  III.  —  On  our  third  trip,  we  locate  the  second  and 
larger  of  the  two  brooks.  I'itt  Street  slopes  two  hundred 
and  fifty  i)aces  to  the  middle  of  a  little  pond  that  lies  along 
both  sides  of  the  road  a  hundred  paces.  Fi'om  here,  the 
brook  extends  north-east  a  hundred  and  fifty  paces,  then 
bends  east-north-east  for  the  same  distance,  and  finally 
l)ears  due  east  two  hundred  and  fifty  paces  to  its  source  near 
Squantum  Street  (D).  Two  little  si)rings  ein[)ty  into  tlie 
1)rook  from  the  right  bank,  one  seventy-li\'e  paces  and  the 
other  a  hundred  and  fifty  paces  above  Pitt  Street,  both  rising 
al)out  twenty-five  paces  from  the  Itrook.  After  reducing  all 
to  the  scale,  these  are  also  modelled  and  drawn  upon  the 
ma[)s. 

Lesson  TV. — jVfter  })assing  under  Fitt  Street,  and  out 
from  the  little  pond  by  the  roadside,  the  brook  Hows  into  a 
round  basin,  making  anoth(>r  pond  a,  hundred  ptices  across. 
Finding  an  outlet  on  the  south-east  side  ol'  the  [)ond,  it  runs 
toward  the  west-south-west  aci'oss  a  nai'row  marsh,  Hows 
uiub'r  Hancock  Street  a,  huudi'cd  paces  fi'om  llie  ridge  V. 
and  finall}',  after  winding  about  the  bi'oad  salt-marsh,  joins 
the  other  bi'ook,  and  Hows  with  it  to  the  ri\('r.  In  ti'acing 
the  l)rooks,  we  liave  now  located  tlu>  lon-er  edijes  of  all  the 
slopes  in  the  map  distri<-t.  More  cai'cful  ol)ser\ation  and 
discei'innent  are  necessai'V  in  locating'  tlic  uppei'  edges  or 
water-partings  which  next  engage  our  attention. 


MArPTX(;    THE    DTSTIIKT. 


Lcssrti)  I'.. — •  TliL'  i)U[)ils  have  liUidiiMl  \v;it*'r-|i;u'tiiius  iii 
tln'ii'  irrt,'\'i(>iis  lessons  on  the  Forms  of  l^and.  ()ur  work 
now  is  to  trace  them  hy  careful  eoinpai'ison  of  slopes  and 
lewis,  and  then  to  locate  tlu'in  hy  direction  and  distance 
from  some  lines  already  lixed  u|)on  the  maps.  The  waler- 
partinus  are  iiidieate(l  ly  dotted  lines.  Starting-  once  more 
from  A.  we  lind  tliat  Sipiantum  Street  follows  the  I'idu'c 
(^lietween  the  hrook-liasins)  towards  the  north-east  three  hun- 
dred paces  :  hut  that  here  the  water-i)artinu'  divides  to  admit 
a  third  basin  which  drains  the  land  heyond  this  point  east  of 
S([uaiitum  Sti-eet.  cai'rvinu'  the  water  into  a  larii'c  hay  ahout 
a  (piarte'r  of  a  mile  distant.  'I'his  latter  hasiu  is  seiiai'ated 
from  the  west  hrook  hy  the  jjartiniz'  which  continues  alonii 
Sipiantum  Strei't.  and  fi'om  the  east  lirook  hy  the  little  ridu'e 
whicli  extends  due  eastward  fi'om  th(»  same  street. 

L' ssoii  17.  —  IveliniiiiiL!,'  to  A.  we  next  trace  the  ujiper 
edLi'es  of  the  slopes  towards  the  soutli-west,  aca'os:^  a  Held  to 
the  miildle  of  tlie  north  side  of  the  sehool-vai'd  ;  thence  it 
t'ollows  the  fence  wotward.  and  cont inues  witli  a  sli;^iit  eur\'e 
aia'os-  llan<'ocl<  Street,  two  hundrcil  |)aces  fi'om  the  rid^ie  C. 
After  a  >harp  tiun  towards  the  m  mt  h-soulleea-t.  a  humlred 
and   fifty   pai'cs.    it    heiuls   aLiain   to    the    south-west,    [tassinu' 

thi'ou'^h    a    hltle  \v led    knoll    a    huudi'cil    paces   lou'j.  and  is 

lo-t  in  tiie  Lireat  >all-niai'-li.  The  water-part  iiiiz's  which 
sei>arate  the>e  ha^ins  fioni  others  to  the  eastwai'd  and  west- 
wai'd  do  no!  conic  within  the  limits  ot'  our  map.  except  on 
the  little  I'id^e  ruiiniiiu'  from  !■>  to  ( '.  The  jiupils  should,  how- 
e\fr.  trace  them  and  disi'dxcr  t he  houudsof  the  two  hrook- 
hasins.  although  they  iiecil  not  he  included  in  the  ma[is. 

T.'ssori.'i  Yll  diiil  17//.  —  We  liax'c  now  eoni|)leted  the 
ilnes  which  mark  the  meeting;'  of  the  slopes  aloiiLi'  lin'ir  "jipi  f 
■d\u\  If/icer  v(]'H'^.  and  (//"s  dr/,  ,-ii/iiifil  f/n-  iHnrtinn  iifilrnin- 


78  THE   CHILD   AND   NATUliE. 

(ir/e.  One  otluT  feature  should  be  included,  and  then  our 
maps  will'he  e()iiii)leted  as  far  as  the  general  surface  is  con- 
cei'ued.  On  our  many  tri[)s,  we  liave  observed  that  the  slopes 
from  the  water-[)arthi<>;s  to  the  l)rook-l)eds  are  not  all  gradual. 
In  fact,  the  highland  is  everywhere  a  low  plateau,  through 
which  the  brooks  in  past  time  seem  to  ha\'e  worn  their  broad 
meadow  basins.  The  edges  of  this  plateau  are  marked  by 
low  abrupt  slopes  whicli  it  will  be  our  next  work  to  locate. 
This  may  lie  easily  done  by  following  the  brooks  from  their 
sources,  and  making  measurements  to  the  low  l)luffs  every 
lifty  or  one  hundred  paces,  or  wherever  it  is  made  necessary 
1)3'  any  change  of  tlirecti(.)n.  The  abi'upt  slopes  may  tlien  be 
modelled,  and  represented  on  the  outline  maps  in  a  simple 
manner  by  shading  {hadni rcn) . 

Otlier  features  may  now  be  addcvl,  e.g.,  tlie  little  pond 
along  Hancock  Street,  south-west  from  the  school  ;  the  path 
leading  to  the  school-yard  from  tlie  same  street ;  the  woods 
neai'  tlu>  liead  of  tlie  cast  1)rook.  The  relief  and  outline; 
maps  on  p.  7;!  serve  to  indicate  what  may  reasonal)ly  l)e 
ex|)ccte<l  fi'om  the  class. 

Aftci-  modelling  the  district  accurately,  riirion.s  a-nsn-sfc- 
tioiis  .s/innlil  be.  nuuJe  and  draii-n.  This  is  an  excellent  (hn'ice 
for  directing  the  attention  more  closclv  to  the  slopes  and 
their  limitations.  It  may  I'cadily  be  seen  that  every  map 
including  a  large  area  iiuist.  of  necessilv.  be  constructed 
on  a  double  scale  of  alliliidc  and  horizontal  extension,  to 
mals'c  slope  pcM'ceptible  to  cithci'  touch  or  sight.  ( )ur  plateaus 
being  only  about  tliii'ty  I'cct  above  the  mai'slics  o\-cr  which 
the  tide-water  Hows,  it  would  be  Acry  diliicult  to  keep  th(> 
true  i)roportion  of  height  to  widtli  :  hence,  we  ha\e  :ui 
excellent  opportunity  to  illustrate  the  exaggerated  scale  u[ion 
which  all  mai)s  of  continents  are  constructed. 


MM'}' IXC    Till-:    l)l>Tni(  T. 


79 


The  relief  innp  liii--  Imvh  iiinilfl.K'il  on  the  sc-iK'  ol'  oiu-- 
I'iulith  (if  nil  inch  to  tm  }incf>.  'I'hi'  cro^s-scclion--  innv  now 
lie  mlilnl  oil  the  >c:dc  of  oiif-riiLhlh  of  ;in  indi  to  ten  feet  of 
riltitn'lc.  'rhf<e  scrlion-  iii:i\-  \<r  iii;i<h'  from  firhl-lriii  o!i>cr- 
\;ition<.  1 IV  cut lini;  through  the  inouMi-il  uiaji.  or  hv  the  nid  of 
iioth.  aU'l  >houlil  lie  luliK'il  to  ihf  ili-lrict  iua[i.  The  -ection 
in  the  ilhi-lration  is  ni:ele  from   1^  to  ]'). 

Finally,  have  (/adi  iin[iil  write  a  careful  (Ifscriiilion  ol'  the 
surface  of  the  (list riet .  locaiinLi'  the  iirincipal  slojies.  hiiiiilanils. 
liasins  rlc.  :  aUn  iiotinu-  th.'  nature  of  the  >ui'face.  whether 
eovei'e'l  with  rocks.  saU'l  oi'  loam,  and  whethei'  wooil.  Lirass. 
or  u'anlen  laii'l.  Attach  the  maps  lo  tlic  (le-.criiitioiis.  and 
file  away  i'^i'  furthei'  a'i  iitjons  when  siuilyini;'  \'eL;-eta! ion  and 
animal  life. 

No  |iorti"n  of  tlu  wh-ile  >y-tem  of  i:c(ii;ra|ihy  '.-  more 
imiiortant  than  that  ju-t  comjilcled  :  for  if  liuhtly  I're-cnteil. 
the  child  now  h'llds  th'-  key  to  ijie  r-lief  and  dii'ainaLi'e  of 
1  he  wlmle  eai'th.  A  it  h"n_:h  1  he  ma|  ii  linL!'  ha-  pri '' 'alily  occu- 
|iieil  !,■--  iiian  a  iiiondi.  the  time  Wduid  ha\'e  l^'.-n  comjiai'a- 
;i\-ely  ].;■.  .t'.ta^lv  -jn'Mt  i:ad  ;1  ri-]i;irrd  a  whi.'.'  term  for  this 
\vork  :  loi'  if  wi-ll  'hiiie.  it  will  -axe  n.orc  than  tlial  leiiuth  of 
time  ill  I'lit  ure  >'  udv. 

So  far  a~-  ivlicf  and  nutline  are  ci  ineeriii-d.  the  iiU|iil-  are 
now  I'eady  to  -lud\  the  maii-  of  the  eonrnaail-.  They  hav'e 
not  oiilv  heeome  familiar  with  the  form--  i  e|  .r,--(arie(l.  hut 
ha\-e  al-o  learned  the  nuiji-i.i ,,>i,i,i,ii  .  l-',ac!i  !'■  ii'ci'jii  map  is 
now  a  series  of  >enienccs:  each  -i'_;ii  is  a  \\ord  to  recall  its 
correspoiidinu'  ueo'jraphical  conreiit:  while  the  ariaiiLicmeiil 
of  the  >i'^'iis  shiiws  the  I'elation-,  of  liie  f^MUis  to  each  otlua'. 
and  thus  icpiesenls  the  eoiitiiiental  relii'l'  or  relations  of 
slopes. 


80  THE   CHILD   A^'I)   NATUliH. 


CIIAPTEli    \'I. 

K.  -  FORCES. 

Suggestions  in  regard  to  teacliing  the  forces  and  motions 
may  perhaps  be  most  clearly  illustrated  in  the  form  of  (pies- 
tions.  XearJ'i  all  of  the  J'uj-ces  can  hcsl  hi'  .stn'h'ed  in.  the 
le.ssoiis  upon  Ua'  Forms  of  /j'tnd  aial  Water.  (See  the  Course 
of  Study.)  They  are  classilied  U)v  convenience  merely  in 
selecting.  Questions  sluMild  not  he  asked  for  the  sake  of 
the  answers,  l)utto  direct  the  investigations,  and  secure  atten- 
tion to  the  ol)je(-ts  of  study.  They  do  not  outline  a,  course, 
l)ut  only  sugg(>st  lines  of  stud}'.  Xo  teacher  will,  of  course, 
follow  the  order  given,  or  Hmit  himself  to  the  list,  as  each 
iiuestion  involves  many  others.  The  hest  (piestion  is  th(> 
one  that  leads  to  closc'st  investigation,  and  thus  Ix'comes  a 
means  of  mind-growth. 

Each  ([uestion  in  these;  lists  ]i;is  in  view  a  later  api)lication 
to  the  continents,  and  paves  the  way  to  the  imagination  of 
the  same  foi'ces  and  motions  u[)on  a  much  gi'ander  scale. 
although  the  same  princi[)li's  ai'c  iuxolvd.  The  work  should 
he  purely  elementai'y.  and  does  not  include  the  philos()[)hy  of 
the  various  iihenonieiia.  except  in  so  far  as  the  I'clations 
may  he  readily  [)ei'ceived  or  easily  imagined.  The  answers 
are  omitted  here,  as  they  are  heautifulh'  and  plainly  written 
in  nature  in  (!veiy  school  ilistiict. 

Allow  the  ehililren   time   to   make    full   ohsei'valions.      l)is- 


FORI  K' 


81 


(•(iuf;iL!('  li;is1v  .•iD-wcix  aii'l  4uic!<  juil'^iiUMii-^  .-is  i'\iilfiicc  nf 
carclc-s  liiou^hl.  Train  [)upil^  raUicr  to  \vci;^ii  (|Ursii(iii-; 
carrl'tilly.  aiul  jml^i-  (Iclilici a.'u'ly.  ••  Siia[)  iii'l_;iiu'!il.""  >ci 
couiiiiMii  cM'ii  aiiiiiiiL;'  [ifdjilc  (>!'  inaliircr  y('ar>.  'h  lari:<ly  tin- 
|ii'()(luct  of  tlirii'  caiiv  sclioi,l-t  raininu'.  when  a  iiiiick  aii-wcr 
was  ilfiiiamlfl  a->  [irooT  of  a  luiulil  (?)  iiitfllcci .  Tlu'iiiiin! 
slioiiM  iii'\cr  lie  fon-i'd.  (live  it  a  reasonai'li'  aaiouii!  of 
tiiiK'.  aii'l  il  will  not  acunirf  the  liaMt  of  thini^ini;'  can-lc^sly. 
or  of  I'l-iii,;  -ati-linl  with  iKiitial  kiiowliMl^c. 

TIk'  rn'-~t  au'l  most  ini[)ort;uil  work  i-  to  iliaw  u|)on  llic 
past  t'Xiioricnff  ol'  tlir  [lUpils  foi'  the  facts  wliidi  ai'i'  to  lir 
urncrali/.t'il.  WliciX'  that  exjuairnci'  is  liinitnl.  they  slmnM 
lir  ciiconraut'il  to  )iiakc  fnrthrr  in\i'stiLiation-.  and  may  In- 
aiilfil  ill  this  iiy  i;'if>tions  and  cx^k  rinaait^.  'I'lic  sini[iK'si 
('Xiirrinirnts.  sndi  as  (•hiMi'rn  can  perform,  arc  liv  fai'  tlh' 
most  lu'liiful.  (ii'cai  care  slioiiM  1'C  tal^cn  not  to  dfducc  a 
l:iw  from  lo,i  frw  faris.  'Flic  law  .-hoiild  ;//•"/'•  diil  of  the 
ma-s  of  i,li~.rr\  atioiis.  and  shonld  not    lie    forced    fi'om  a  few. 

In  direeiinu'  the  in\"c>liL:ation-  of  lli''  pn|iils,  the  teacher 
■-hoiild  keep  a  dclinite  laid  in  \ii'W.  ^ouie  law  or  S(aii's  df 
laws  wliirji  he  wisjics  them  to  di-eo\(a'.  and  should  axcid 
wandi,  rlic_;  fi'<en  the  -ahiec; .  d'jie  f\[iiMiments.  a^  well  as  the 
o!i-rr\:i1  ions  >h(inld  lie  >o  eondni-Icd  tiiat  tlic  children  may 
di>co\-.a'  the  tiNlh  i'V  p.a'ci-i\-inLi,-  tlie  I'elaliniis  o{  the  iilijects. 
and  not  --imply  IumI'  il  in  ihe  explanation  of  the  teacher. 
Aim  lo  siippjrmciit  the  formci'  experience  of  e\(a-y  child. 

'I'iic  nue^lion^  mav  occasion.allv  h,'  \\-~v\  to  ad\aiilaL;e 
as  viil,;, .,•!-,  |',,r  ,,1'al  and  wi-iUcn  laie_iua'_:c  Ic^-^nn-..  'I'lio-e 
upon  W'atei'  in  the  ()ccan  ai'c,  of  coni'sc.  fur  childriai  lixiiej 
near  ihe  scacoa^t.  I-'a icon I'a '_;■('  the  pupils  to  a-k  ipa-tions. 
There  is  no  law  so  simjilc  that  we  ma\  not  learn  much  in  rcLiard 
to  it  liy  watcliinu  the  minds  of  liule  chiidicn  '.irou   up  to  it. 


82  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 


lo     WATJEIi. 

Water  Flowing  ove?-  the  Land.  —  AVliere  does  the  Avater  in  brooks 
and  livers  come  from? 

Wlu're  does  it  go? 

In  what  direction  must  a  river  flow  ? 

Have  you  ever  seen  any  land  that  does  not  slope  V 

Why  are  some  rivers  rapid,  others  slow  ? 

Why  do  rivers  wind  about? 

Do  rivers  di-ain  or  water  the  land  ? 

In  what  part  ot"  a  basin  must  a  river  make  its  bed? 

Do  brooks  wind  more  in  a  plain  or  in  a  hilly  countiy? 

\\'hicli  ilow  more  swiftly,  straight  or  winding  brooks?      AVhy? 

IIovv  much  land  does  a  river  drain  ? 

Wliy  arc;  some  brooks  larger  than  others? 

What  makes  them  high  or  low  ? 

Wliy  do  t]]ey  sometimes  overflow  their  banks? 

What  arc  dykes  V  levees? 

Do  you  know  the  story  of  "The  Leak  in  the  Dyke"? 

How  many  slopes  must  a  river  basin  have? 

What  if  the  earth's  surface  were  perfectly  level? 

What  bounds  every  brook  liasin? 

\\'h\  are  some  brooks  broad  and  shallow,  others  narrow  and 
deep/ 

Where  ai-e  ihey  generally  widest?     Why? 

A\'lici-c  do  Ilii'V  get  their  water  in  dry  seasons? 

Where  is  tli(>  gi-catcr  ([uanlity  of  watei',  in  the  bed  or  banks? 

AVhy  ai'c  dams  built  in  ri\-crs?     Ilow  do  vessels  pass  them  ? 

AVhat  kind  of  lavci's  are  best  foi-  navigation?   manufacturing? 

AVhy  do  large  rivers  generally  flow  l)y  large  cities  ? 

What  are  the  uses  of  water  flowing  o\er  the  land  ? 

)!'"/'/•  lloirinij  tliroiujh  the  Sell. — How  deep  into  thi>  ground 
does  rain  go? 

What  stops  it  '•'     In  what  direction  nnist  it  then  flow  " 


ir.i77;/,'.  60 

A\'hy  'in  iiMj  thf  r;iiii>  linally  till  tii.'  -oil  ? 
WiiHt  li.'coiii.-^  (if  tliP  wat.T'.''      \\  hiT.'  will  it  cmiim-  out  ? 
What  i-  tlif  plaiv  cail.-l  .'      \Vhal  ilo.'S  it  lorm  Y 
\\'!iy  i-  sjiriii-  wat'-r  >o  j'Ui'c  ".•' 

W'iiicji  'loyiiii  piv-i'cr  to  ilriiik.  >i.riiiu.  w>'ll  or  rain  wat'T: 
\\'lia;  ilo  plants  i'i-im1  uj'oii  ? 
1  low  i-  til"  loo.l  l.i-ouL:iil  to  til, •in  y 
llo-.\   lar  iiiio  till'  .-oil  do  10, i(-  ^MMii'iia;,-'.' 
1  lo  \\.'  liml  till'  laru'''i- au'l  loii-vr  I'o^.ts  in  dry  or  wct  .-oil'.' 
\\'lia!  do  ]ilani-  l'"^'d  upon  in  drv  .--a.-on-  f 
\\dii'-!i  li.ild-  moi-tiir'  1o;i_;.t.  .-.and  oi-  loam? 

\\diat   wi.uld    i"'   til"  (viialiiiou   of    ill,'    .-,iil    if    iii,'    earth    wi'i-,' 
■\,-i  ? 
(.)f  w  Iiat  11-"  i<  til"  .<!,  ,p"  of  la  111]  to  j'hint-  '.' 
\\diat  :ir"  ill"  n>---  of  wan-r  n;,ivin_;  lin'oii'^h  tia'  .<oii  y 


Why  do    |„  ,nd-  ••  ,ti-y    up  "  ?      \\  hy 


ir-/'.  a  ;,,  /.;.   .1, 

i..,-iti,'-  i,o;l  ,lry  ■; 

W  lial   i  ,,•(•(  ,iii,'-;  (,f  a  lia-in  of   wan-i'  if   -,a   in  li,"  -ain-iiini'  '.' 

1  >o  !■],,;  ii,,-  ,l:y  III:  a-  '  ,iu:''i-:;y  on  a  \',  :n'h>'  oi'  a  raini  day  V      In  t  i 
.-ni.sliin,'  ,a-  -ha,i,  '.■'      (  )n  a  coid  or  w  arm  ,lav  ? 

What  1-  tia-  naamin^  ,  a  ■•  i  li"  -iin  i-  dr.iw  iiiu'  \\  :\\ '■•.'"  '! 

W  li\   ,!• ,  ■.-.  ■•  -"iir-!  ill,  ■-  I,;. ,/.   u]i,  ,n  h, ,;    \\"a.;,  ;■ '.' 

Wiaa-"  do  tih'  cloud-  from  !■  ,r,iMioi  i\  .■-  _.,  '; 


\\d,,  1,-  ,lo  ,.;.,,i,N  CMin,.  f'-om'      Wdi,  r'  do  ihry  ^-V 
Wh.ai   iiio\  ,•-,  .•l,,!i,i<  .■■      II,,-.',    la-l   can  lla'V  I  :-.i\,';  - 
1 1'  ,\\"  iii^li  ar,'  I  ii,'  cloiii],-  ',' 

Do  y,>u  i<iio\v  lie  -I,  )ry  of  •■  l-"ranl<liii  and  hi-  kin'  "  '/ 
W,a,'  you  "\a'r  a'lo',  ,•  i  h"  cii  nal-  V 

IIa\,'  \oii  .-v-T  h''ai-d  of    li i'atll"  ah,a.  ,•  ;  Ji"  I'haal-  "  ,' 

Ilr'W  can  cloiid.-  ah,,\'"  n-  l"'    nio\iii-    in    m.uiy  dii,',-t  i^ 'iis   ai    lie 
-am,'  t  ini''  '.■' 

I  las  every  cloud  a  '•  .-ilver  liniii,;'  "'  V 

Draw  all  the  I'orm,^  of  cloud.s  tliat  \'ou  I'aii  S"e. 


84 


THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 


Wliere  doos  dew  conic  from  ?     When  docs  it  form  ? 

How  long  does  it  remain  'i     Wliere  does  it  go? 

Does  dew  f((Il?     'Why  docs  an  ice-]^itcher  "sweat"? 

A\'hy  does  mrjisture  (dcwj  collect  on  the  windows  in  winter? 

\Vhat  forms  the  dro])S  of  water  th(,'re  ? 

When  can  we  see  our  breath?      What  part  do  we  see? 

A\'hy  docs  not  moisture  gather  on  hot  stoves? 

Ai'c  all  raindrops  eijually  large  ? 

Do  you  know  any  signs  of  rainy  and  fair  weather? 

JJoes  it  rain  harder  before  or  after  a  bright  Hash  of  lightning? 

AVhy  is  I'ain  fresh  when  it  comc's  fi'om  the  ocean? 

Why,  then,  should  we  bathe  often? 

When  do  raiidiows  appeal'? 

In  what  pai't  of  the  sky  do  you  always  see  morning  rainbows? 

Of  what  is  the  rainbow  a  sign? 

Does  the  bow  form  before  or  after  it  stops  raining? 

])id  you  ever  see  one  during  a  snowstorm  ? 

])id  you  ever  see  one  near  a  fountain? 

On  wliicli  side  of  the  fountain  must  you  stand  to  see  it  ? 

Set  a  tumbl(M-  of  water  in  the  sun,  and  see  what  colors  it  gives. 

A\'hat  coloi's  can  you  see^  in  a  rainbow? 

Wliat  are  the  uses  of  water  in  the  air? 


IVdff)- i)/  Ihf'  Ocran.  (Foi-  ]m]iils  living  near  the  sea.)  —  IIow 
docs  ocfMii  wati'i-  dilfer  from  I'ivcr  water? 

AVhat  are  tiiles?     How  often  is  it  higli  tide? 

"Where  is  the  moon  during  higli  iidi'V   low? 

Of  what  use  is  salt  in  the  sea? 

How  is  it  olitaiin'd  from  the  ocean  ? 

Wliy  does  not  the  river  water  make  tiie  oci'an  fresher  each 
year  ? 

Do  ponds  have  (ides? 

Of  what  uses  are  storms  on  the  ocean? 

What  are  the  u>es  of  the  oceans? 


1 1  J/'/:/,'.  (Sf) 

( 'niiin/i'ius  iif   Willi  I.      -|)iii's    it  r\fr  ruin    in  winln-,  or  .^iiow  in 

SUIIIIIUT/ 

IImw   many  lays  has  ('Wry  [MTli'd  >iin\\  llaki' V 

\\'iiy  (id  we  soiiirtiuifS  l)aiik  (Uir  il(l^Sl^^  wiili  snow? 

I>  a  >n(i\\  lidU-!'  warm  or  cold  in-idi-  / 

I'loui  what  do  ]''.M[iiiiiKiux  Imild  lln-ir  iiiiUV 

1  )ors  I  1m'  L;roiiiid  I  Vi'c/.i'  d<'(']it'r  w  iirii  !iari',  or  coNiM'cd  w  il  li  >iio\v? 

<  )t'  w  liai  ii-i'  i^  -III  i\\  lo  tri'i's  '.■' 

l)(j('s  it  li-'comi'  wariiHT  or  coMiM'  diiriii;^  a  si  ill  siio\\->tormV 

Is  a  lliawiiiL;'  das'  wai'iii  or  cold  '.•' 

W'lial  iiiaki'S  crii-t  lorm  on  snow  ? 

^^'hl•!l  will  snow  make  L;ood  liall,>'.-' 

]  )o('s  SHOW  melt  tii>l   in  a  t'oi'csL  or  oIumi  ]'lain? 

Where,  llieii,  would  ll U  from  nielicd  ,-now  lie   more  likely  to 

occur'.' 

In  which  M'ason>  do  we  ha\'e  liail->loriiis'.-' 
Wdiai   i>  in  the  ceiil  iv  oT  a  hailsioiie'.-' 
A|-e  all  hail>tiiiie>  of   (lie  same  -i/e  and   -liape? 
Wdial  damage  i>  caii-ed   1  ly  hail  '.•' 

\\  hal   are  the  dilTerellceS  lielweell    iVost   and  ijew'.-' 
W  hen  and  w  here  doi's  I'msl    I'ornr.'' 
l>oe^  il   form  on  wiiid\   or  calm  iiij.hts'.-' 
Wdieii  the  ni-ht   i>  eloud\-  or  clear? 

\\  hy  cannot,  !'ro~t  lonn  near  crack >  in  a,  w  indow-paiie  '.■' 
(In  which  side  of   a  huildin- or  wall  will  fro>l  and  siiow  i-emain 
the  lon-vst  '.•' 

How  can  fro-t  ••  hea\i' '"  a  liiiildiir,;  V 
Wdiai  eflVel  has  fro-t  upon  the  ^oiT.-' 
Wdial  I'riiils  are  im]iro\-ed  hy  iVo.-t  V 
\\dial  liarm  is  caii-ed  li\"  fro-t.-'  ,-now '.■'  rain?   ice? 


At   w  haf  tempei-atiire  i-,  water  hea\  iesi  ?      'i'rv  it. 
\\  liich  i-  hea\  ill',  ici-  or  water?      I'ro\i'  it. 


SQ  TUE   CUILIJ   AND   NATURE. 

AVhat  would  result  to  rivers  and  lakes  if  ice  were  the  heavier  ? 
Why  do  pipes  burst  when  water  freezes  in  them '? 
Why  are  liigh  mountain-tops  covered  with  .vnow  and  ice? 
How  are  icicles  formed V     What  are  the  uses  of  ice? 

Uses  of  Water.  — What  are  the  uses  of  water:  — 
In  rivers,  lakes  and  oceans  ?     In  the  soil  ? 
Ill  the  air?     In  springs  and  wells? 

In  the  conditions  of  dew,  frost,  hail  etc.  ?  In  regulating  tem- 
perature ? 

As  a  means  of  travel  ?     As  a  motive-power?     In  mining? 
In  pui'ifying  the  atmosphere?     To  j^ilants  and  animals? 
In  the  kitchen  ?     In  the  laundry  ?  etc. 

Intense  interest  may  be  uroused  in  the  obsei'vation  of  the 
various  conditions  of  water  by  performing  a  few  simple  ex- 
periments in  the  i)resence  of  the  class.  A  test-tube  or  bottle 
of  water,  a  saucer  and  a  lamp  are  all  the  apparatus  I'equired. 
Heat  the  water,  and  allow  the  [)Upils  to  recortl  the  successive 
changes  they  perceive  taking  place. 

.Vs  the  water  heats,  they  ma}'  oljserve  the  rising  of  the  air- 
])ubbles,  boiling,  eva[)()rati()ii,  the  formation  of  clouds  etc.  ; 
then  holding  the  cold  saucer  in  the  \-a[)()r  or  '•  «;a/c;--c^c.s^," 
they  may  see  dew,  )'aiiidro|)s,  fVost,  icicles  etc.,  in  process  of 
rcjrmation.  'i'he  work  should  l)e  very  simple,  and  affoi'ds 
excellent  opportunity  for  language  lessons.  ]\Ionld  the 
cxijression  while  the  mind  is  at  "white  heat"  of  activity. 

Young  teachei's  especially  should  guard  against  the  fatal 
error  <d'  trying  to  ••  exi)lain  "  llic  \-isiblc  effects  i)r<)duccd. 
\\\  nine  cases  out  of  t(Mi  this  ai'ises  from  a  desire  to  impi'(\ss 
their  su[)erior  wisdom  (?)  n[)on  the  trusting  ]uipils.  We 
should  m)t  forget  that,  although  we  may  s(>em  to  float  over 
tlic    explanation    by  the    aid    of  a    few   uaiites  of   foi'ces,   we 


601L~MAKL\(;. 


8' 


Know  IK)  more  in  reality  about  tlie  stroiiir  (Iccp  uudt'i'curn'nt 
of  ciiusi's  tli.-in  does  tlie  cliild  wlio  c:ui  wade  in  Kul  a  lew 
steps,  'renij)!  not  tlie  little  one  to  trust  himself  too  far  on 
this  great  oceau  of  thcjuglit  in  the  fragile  shell  of  empty 
words. 

The  following  statement  will  l)ear  re^jetition  :  viz..  l->x[icri- 
nients  ought  not  to  take  the  place  of  the  child's  past  cxpcri- 
enee.  lint  merely  supplemen.t  it.  and  stimulate  keen  peree[iti(jn 
and  close  atteuti(jn. 

?.     SOIL-MAKiyc. 

Kuid.i  of  Soil. — A\'luit  is  thi;  (lifl'fr(_'iir(!  l)eiwi'(_-n  sand  and 
gravel? 

What  is  till'  .sha[H:'  of  a  urain  of  .-ami'.-'  of  a  pchble'.'' 

Whal  is  du.-f.'  dirtV      'What  aru  hoiild'TS  .' 

AVliat  is  tin-  diffi'Ti-nci'  ln'twctai  (hist  aii'l  mud? 

AMkU  colore  ha\f  \(mi  >fiai  in  (•lay? 

\\dieri'  dij  wo  Ljfiii-rally  liml  day'.'' 

\\diicli  is  nidrf  ii>''tiii.  .-ami  or  clay? 

Wlial  hrcMiiir-  1.1    till'  ['lauts  that  die?      Wdiat  i<  loaf-mouM  V 

Why  do  farm. 'IS  oftfii  [iloii^h  gi-a-M>  iiiin  dii-  .-nil? 

Wlia!  i-  till'  color  (if  tliL-  ridu'.-t  carih  ynii  iiavr  s.'cn? 

^\d^u■h  all(jws  water  to  pas-  throu-h  it  mnn:  readily,  -and  or 
loam? 

Do  jilaiits  ever  c;;row  upon  bare  i-ocks? 

Ill  wliai  ways  do  fariiu-rs  make  tlie  -oil  richer? 

How  deep  is  the  loam  in  your  i^-ardcn  ? 

'What  is  unde'r  tiic  loam  ?   under  dial  ? 


Dl.<trUiiiliivi  of  Soil.  — A\diat  makes  water  muddy? 
^Vhich  will  a  brook  carry  farther,  rnie  said  oi-  pelihle-? 
\\diicli  <'aii   (virry  the   -reater  ipiamity  of  -ilt.a   rapid  or  a  -low 
rivei'? 

^^'ilicll  caii  cari'\'  the  coarser  and  heavier? 


88  THE   CHILD   A^D   ^'ATURE. 

How  fnr  can  a  str(.'aiii  cariy  .silt  ? 

\Vliat  is  in  the  beds  oi'  sluggish  brooks?  ra])id  ones? 

Why  do  ]ivei'-baiiks  sonietimes  cav(;  in? 

^Vllel'e  do  pebbles  along  the  beach  come  troniV 

Why  are  they  smooth  and  rounded? 

From  ^vhat  is  sand  made?     How? 

What  makes  rocks  cruml)Ie? 

A\'hat  cracks  large  rocks? 

Why  ar(;  coast-lines  irreguhir? 

llow  do  jc^tties  deepen  a  j'iver?     (Make  one  in  the  brook.) 

^Vhat  becomes  of  the  material  waslied  out? 

Tn  ^vhat  oi-der  does  running  water  deposit  its  different  kinds  of 
sediment  ? 

Tn  what  part  of  a,  ln-ook  basin  do  we  find  Ihe  finest  and  I'ichest 
soil? 

Why  are  bottom-lands  so  fei'tile? 

]f  a  muddy  bi'ook  empties  into  a  ]>ond,  wliere^  will  the  sediment 
be,  deposited  ? 

How  are  deltas  f orm(3d  ? 

Of  what  is  the  soil  in  a  delta  composed? 

Ar/ciits  al  Worlr  in  the  Suit.  — Why  do  I'armei's  plough  before  tJiey 
sow  ? 

"What  is  the  action  of  fi'ost  in  the  soil? 

JI<j\v  (lee>p  does  the  ground  fri(v.e? 

How  do(;s  nature  loosini  ihe  soil  each  year? 

How  I'ai'  into  the  gi'ound  do  roots  ]>enelrate? 

M'liy  do  we  loosen  the  soil  about  roots? 

When  it  rains,  does  ihe  fine  or  coai'se  soil  settle  below  tlie  sur- 
face?    What  bi'ings  it  back? 

Where  do  the  woi'ius  come  fi'om  dni'ing  or  alter  a  rain-storm? 

Whei'e  do  they  liv(!  ?      What  do  they  feed  uj)on? 

What  do  they  constantly  bi'ing  to  the  surface? 

Do  yon  know  of  any  insects  or  t)Ugs  fliat  imi)i'()\'e  the  soil? 

Of  what  use  ai-e  little  ant-hills  all  oxer  a  tield? 

How  do  bu-'s  antl  worms  e-'t  air  imdei'L'i'ound? 


.1//,'. 


80 


As  \vi'  iHl;'  lu'low  till'  surface,  <\ncs  tli''  ;4i-()iiiiil  appear  (o  l)ecdni': 
waniior  or  cuMcr  in  siiminer '.•'  winter? 
Of  what  u.-e  is  ilie  sun's  lieat  in  the  soil? 
Of  uhal  use  is  rain  to  the  soil '.-'  suowV 


The  ("Ulst's  whieh  drtci'iniuc  the  ;/■;/'/•"/  (11  rortioii:^  of  tho 
wimls  (.)f  the  ulolie  may  lie  referreil  lo  a  U'w  well-known 
laws.  'I'hi'  same  foi-ees  are  at  work  everywliere  aliout  lis. 
anil  the  ilaily  experience  of  every  child  brinii's  liini  constantly 
into  contact  with  them.  The  observation  of  the  motions  of 
air,  anil  the  discoN-cry  of  the  laws  eontnjUinii'  them,  belong  to 
the  elements  of  ti'eoerai»hy  :  the  ap[)lie;ition  of  these  laws 
to  the  u'lobe.  in  exiilaininu'  the  causes  of  the  Lircat  wind-belts 
and  monsoons.  I'orms  a  [tart  nf  ad\'aneed  work. 

Thus  a  cliilil  -ii^es  the  smnlxc  (aii'l  n|)ward  fi'om  the  fire,  or  he 
feels  a  cold  draught,  and  yet  may  not  know  or  seek  a  cause. 
lie  lias  made  hundreds  of  similar  obser\ations.  yet  he  may 
not  hn\'e  discoxcred  the  simple  law  of  tlie  liehter  tluid  lloat- 
inu'  upon  the  hea\ier.  Or  if  he  has  u'euei'ali/ed.  he  mav  not 
know  wliy  hot  air  or  water  i^  lighter,  bulk  for  bulk,  than  cold  : 
yet  he  has  seen  water  buil  (i\er  in  the  tea]<etlle.  the  mercan'v 
rise  in  the  thei'inometei'.  and  many  other  proofs  of  expansion 
by  lu'at  resuhinir  in  difference  in  weieiit  between  eipial  Imlks 
of  h(A  and  cold  lluids.  ISnt  lead  him  to  classify  his  dliserwa- 
tioiis.  —  to  disc(  iver  i>rinci|iles  ov  laws.  —  and  he  may  rea.-i  ui 
that  because  air  expands  when  lieated.  and  becomes  liij,hter. 
bulk  b)r  bulk,  than  the  snrroundini:  air.  it  lloats.  Thus  he, 
in  pait.  answers  the  /'■//'/.  This  may  serve  to  indicate  the 
(  rder  in  which  the  subject  should  be  studied. 

The  teacher  should  clearly  outline  in  his  own  niind  the 
causes  of  the  ilirertiojis  of  the  winds  of  the  globe,  that  he 


90  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

nuiy  be  able  to  decide  which,  tunoug  the  Jiiaiiy  laws  relating 
to  winds  in  general,  he  must  lead  his  pupils  to  discover. 
Those  only  should  be  selected  which  determine  direction. 
lie  next  decides  what,  in  the  experience  of  the  pupils,  illus- 
trates each  of  these  laws,  and  frames  his  questions  to  recall 
these  facts,  lie  also  directs  them  in  new  lines  of  investi- 
gation and  experiment  to  add  to  their  experience  esi)ecially 
where  it  is  quite  limited. 

Thus  the  pu^jils  are  prepared  in  the  elements  which  may  be 
used  later  in  the  study  of  the  distriliution.  They  can  inter- 
pret the  great  forces  at  work  all  over  the  globe  only  in  so  far 
as  they  have  observed  them  about  home,  performing  the 
same  work  in  miniature.  AVhen  the  globe,  its  motions  and 
l)lan  of  heating  ha\'e  been  studied  in  the  advanced  work,  the 
children  will  readily  apply  the  laws  they  have  discovered, 
and  explai'i  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  following  questions  and  experiments  are  intended  to 
suggest  one  order  and  manner  of  presenting  the  elementary 
steps  in  the  study  of  air. 

CfPises  of  Motion.  —  Which  is  easier,  to  draw  a  wagon  up  hill  or 
down?     Why? 

Why  can  you  not  slide  np  hill  in  winter? 

Why  will  a  ball  roll  down  hill  ? 

When  you  throw  a  .stone  into  the,  air,  why  docs  it  not  go  up 
forever  ? 

\Vhy  do  not  apples  fall  upward? 

Ill  what  direction  will  water  always  flow? 

Of  what  use  is  a  spiritdcNel  ?     A\'liat  moves  iho  air-bubble? 

What  substances  nover  fall  to  llie  earth? 

I  low  large  is  a  ])ound? 

What  do  W(.'  really  measure  when  w<'  weigh  any  thing? 

Of  what  use  is  a  therinonicter?  weather-vane? 


.17/;.  91 

U'liat  iii()Vi'>  the  cloinl^  iiiid  raises  ilusi  in  the  sti'ci-i  '.•' 
When  (lot's  a  wiiuliiiill  turn  ino.^t  rapidly? 
\\'liat  do  we  breathe  in  '.•'     W'iiat  is  wind  '.•' 

In  liow  many  ways  canyon  discowr  whicli  way  thi'  wind  I'low.^-V 
In  how  many  directions  havi;    you  seen  clouds  inovin,;  at   on.- 
time  V 

What  is  the  dillerence  between  a  gale  and  a  Ijri'.v.e  'i 

Name  any  substances  that  are  blown  aliout. 

Naniu  any  that  tloat  in  the  air. 

Which  of  the  following  will  lloat  on  water  ?  lead,  corli,  iron, 
glass,  ice,  oil,  wood. 

Which  of  these  substances  are  heavier  tliaii  water  ? 

Why  will  a  cork  float,  and  a  piece  of  lead  .--iiik  ? 

Why  will  not  an  (?inpty  (V)  bottle  >ink  '.' 

How  can  you  iind  out  whether  a  substance  \v ill  Heat  nr  .^ink, 
without  putting  it  in  water? 

Which  of  the  f(,II()\viiig  lliii<ls  will  lloat  upnn  the  dtli,  r  ';  water 
and  mercury:  oil  and  wate'r;  water  ami  air;  air  and  hydi'Mgeii  ; 
warm  and  cold  air. 

Wdien  two  tbiids  are  pimred  togi'tlier,  which  will  Heat   '. 

"When  many  fluid>  are  niixeil,  —  I'-g-.  wat-'f,  oil.  air  and  ijuiclv- 
silver,  —  in  what  order  will  they  coiue  to  re>t  'i     ^\  hy? 

When  does  a  teakettle  boil  over?     Why? 

Wliat  results  when  you  put  your  thumb  ou  the  bulb  cii'  a 
thermometer? 

Why  are  spaces  left  between  the  (Mid?*  of  rails  on  a,  railrnad  ? 

AVhy  does  a  smith  heat  a  tire  before  putting  it  on  a  whe<'l  ? 

Cork  and  heat  a  bottle  of  ice-water,  and  what  re.-idts? 

Cork  tightly  a  thin  test-tid>e  of  air.  and  heat  it.      Ive-uli  ? 

Balance  two  dii>]iers  of  the  same  size  ;  fill  cue  with  hot  and  the 
other  with  ice  wtiter.      \\'irK-h  is  heavier  ? 

'i"ry  the  same  with  botije,  of  hot  and  reM  air. 

Tie  a  pieee  of  thin  rubber  o\''r  the  nioutli  of  a  buttle  nf  (-(jM 
air,  and  then  heat  it.      Kesull  ? 


02  THE   CHILI)    AND   NATURE. 

W\vdl  results  to  water,  air,  and  iron,  when  lieatcd  ? 

Do  you  know  of  any  other  sultstances  that  ex2)an(l  when 
heated  '? 

Wliich  is  heavier,  bulk  lor  bulk,  hot  or  cold  air  ?  water  V 

AVhich  will  float  iq)ou  the  other,  the  hot  or  cold? 

When  you  pi-ess  a  stick  into  the  water,  what  lifts  it  to  the 
surface  ? 

AVhy  does  heated  air  rise  ?     What  lifts  or  floats  it? 

Do  we  generally  And  the  colder  air  near  the  ceihng,  or  floor,  of  a 
room  ? 

Wliy  is  it  warmer  over  a  hot  stove  tlian  under  it  ? 

AVhat  turns  tlie  little  "  windmill  "  over  a  hot  stove? 

In  what  direction  do  flames  generally  shoot?     AVhy  ? 

What  causes  the  draught  up  a  ciiinmey  ? 

Why  do  smoke  and  sparks  rise  ? 

What  carries  Santa  Claus'  letters  up  the  chimney? 

AVhat  causes  a  draught  when  we  open  a  window  on  a  cold  day  ? 

AVhy  do  soap-bubbles  rise  ?  Vapor  from  the  breath  and  tea- 
kettle ? 

AVhich  causes  the  better  draught,  a  tall  or  short  chimney? 

AVhy  does  sliaking  the  grate  start  the  fire  ? 

AVhere  are  ventilators  placed  in  cars  ?     AVhy? 

How  are  mines  sometimes  ventilated  by  fires? 

With  what  are  balloons  filled?     What  floats  them? 

lloir  the  Atmosphrre  /,>•  Healed.  —  Do  we  find  the  air  warmer  or 
cooler,  as  we  ascend  hills  and  mountains? 

Why  docs  it  not  become;  warmer  as  wo  approach  the  sun  by 
clindjing  iipwai'd  ? 

Why  is  the  zinc  on  the  wall  behind  a  hot  slovc;  warmi^r  than  the 
air  iKsar  it  ? 

Hold  a  thermom(!ter  ngainst  a  sunny  sand  bank,  then  one  inch 
from  it,  one  foot,  thi'ee  feet,  ten  I'eet;  top  of  a  tree.  Where  is  it 
warmest?  coldest? 


AIR. 


93 


Wliicli  is  warmer,  the  air  over  a  saiid-lmiik  or  L;re(Mi  licld  in 
suiishiin'  '.■' 

IIuw  i.-  tin.'  atniosiihei-e  ln-atfil? 

If  till' air  were  heated  directly  by  tlic  .-uii.  what  Wduld   n'sult  ? 

^\'he^e  would  it  then  be  wannest  V 

'J'est  the  temperature  of  a  pond  and  its  sandy  l»ank  in  sunshine, 
and  a^ain  late  at  in^ht.      Kesnh  ? 

\\'liiL-h  hiMts  more  shjwly  duiiuL;'  the  day,  and  whieh  retains  its 
heat  lnm;er  after  sundown  ? 

Over  which  is  the  air  lighter  during  the  day  V   night? 

W'lien  there  is  a  dilference  in  temperature'  between  two  places, 
what  motion  of  the  air  roults? 

A\'hat,  then,  causes  tiie  land  and  sea  bree/i-s'.-' 

AN'hich  do  ynu  think  ha\e  nioi'e  e\en  temprrature.  places  near 
tlie  ocean  or  inland  ? 


Wliy  do  we  like  to  have  it  cloudy  on  hot  davs? 
Does  all  the  -un's  heat  reach  the  earth's  sui'faee? 
Why  does  the  ail'  b.eDm.'  co<ile|-  a-  ii  iloafs  upwaidV 
What  Ix'comes  of  its  heat  ? 

Ihiw  high  can  heated  air  lloat  ?      \Vhat  stops  it  ? 
When  will  it  cniue  down  V 

Ibiw  high  can  a  balloon  rise  y  a  soap-bubbh^  V 
^\'he^  must  tli'-y  e(iiiii>  dnwn  ?     A\'liat  bi'iic^s  them  down? 
Wiien    VdU  >ift    lliiur  ovei-  a   lamp  chimney,   or  tin-ow  bits 
aper  over  a  liot-air  regislei-,  where  will  they  -ettle? 
\Vliy  do  they  not  come  direet  ly  down  '.•' 

\\  \[V  does  not  the  smoke  above  a  hot  sto\t'  settle  (h)Wii  upon 
Where,  then,  will  air  come  down  after  cooling  ? 
In  wliat  direction  mu^t  it  move  after  <'(rniing  to  the  surface? 
Upon  what  does  the  speed  of  wind  depend? 
\Vhat  names  do  you  know   lor  wimls  of  diffei-eut  rates  of  spet 
From  what  direction  do  your  warm  winds  blow  ?  cold  oui's? 
Whieii  are  ofttuier  accompanied  by  rain? 


II  ? 


94  THE   CHILD   AND  NATURE. 

Uses  of  Air.  —  Do  fislies  breiitlic  ? 

AMiat  brings  our  raiii-clouds  ? 

What  becomes  of  the  breatli  we  exliale  ? 

What  animals  travel  iu  the  air? 

Of  what  use  is  wind  to  sailors  ? 

What  machines  are  moved  by  air  ? 

AMiat  makes  waves? 

AVhat  damage  is  caused  by  wind? 

Have  you  ever  been  told  what  causes  the  twiliglits? 

Of  what  use  are  gales? 

Is  air  of  greatest  use  in  motion  or  at  rest? 

^<anie  all  the  uses  of  air  that  you  know. 

XoTK.  —  (^)ufStions  may  also  lie  aildcil,  if  thought  desiralile,  to  lead 
tlie  pu[iils  to  discover  the  simple  laws  of  Ixxlies  in  motion  tending  to 
maintain  uniform  motion,  and  also  motion  in  straight  lines,  thus  pre- 
paring for  the  influence  of  rotation  in  westing  the  ti'ade-winds,  and 
easting  the  return  trades.  But  this  may,  perhaps,  be  better  studied  iu 
couuection  with  the  advanced  work. 

4.     FORM,  SIZT:  .IA7>  MOTIoyS  or  THE  KAJtTjr. 

Too  stiT)ii<4"  u  plcu  cuiinot  bo  ciitorod  auninst  tlio  pernicious 
practice  of  i)liiiiiiing  little  children  into  the  book-study  of 
nuithematieal  ^eoii'raphy  without  any  previous  training  in  the 
observation  of  the  li(>avens.  One  of  the  simplest  and  most 
fascinatinLi'  parts  of  the  whole  suhjeet  is  thus  made  the 
most  abstruse.  The  very  manner  of  prt'sentinu'  it  by  deOni- 
tions  licconics  a  bari'iei'  to  fidui'e  observation.  A\'hat  the  mind 
once  coiKH'ives  to  be  coinidicalcd.  it  can  never  after  approaeli 
in  its  simple  beauty. 

There  is  mueli  in  this  line  of  work  that  the  cliih]  can  readily 
discover  b)r  himself,  if  the  teacher  will  but  direct  his  obser- 
vation, and  allow  him  time.  Moreover,  it  affords  an  excellent 
opportunity  to  cidtivate  the  habit  of  persistent  observation  of 


MOTIoys    OF    THE   E  A  Hi  II. 


95 


llio  r^anio  olijt'ct  through  u  loiij;  [uTiinl  of  time,  and  no  one 
will  (U'liy  tilt'  iiii[iort:iiirt'  of  this  hul/it  in  vwvy  ilt-inirtnu'iit 
i)i  >tiiily  ami  rrst/arcli. 

l'"i»i-  cxamiili'.  tlif  (jiirstiou  i>  a'-k^-il  in  Sc[ittMnli('i'.  ••  At 
wliat  tinirot"  the  vt'ar  dijrs  tin'  sun  >iiine  tlu'  slioi'tc>t  ili^tancc 
into  tilt' srliodlroum  at  n(M.)n  r  "'  'I'iic  limit  nl'  its  shadow  is 
then  mai'ktMl  on  the  lloor.  ami  carh  sunny  day  the  children 
oliservf  that  the  sun  runs  lower,  and  that  its  li:ilit  rcaehes  in 
farther  and  farther  till  linally.  in  the  latter  part  <.>f  Decnnlier. 
it  remains  nearly  the  same  for  a  few  days.  The  limit  of  its 
shadow  is  then  earefullv  marked  and  pri'servrd.  At  the 
>anie  time,  attention  is  called  to  the  chaiejcs  talviiii:'  iilace  in 
nature.  —  the  wondei'fnl  i)lienomena  of  chani^in::'  sra^oiis. 
Then  the  path  of  liiiht  liecomcs  shortei-  and  shoiler.  and  the 
children  readilv  dis(.'o\u'r  that  tht.'  >un  is  i'i>inu'  hiiiher  in  the 
sky.  \\diile  it  continues  lo  shorten,  we  maik  its  limits  onct' 
a  week,  putting:,'  the  dates  opposite  their  ap[!ro[iriate  inai'ks. 
l-'inally.  in.Iune.  it  reaches  tin-  >anic  lim'.  oi'  moves  appar- 
ently throuiih  the  same  path  for  a  U'W  >uccc>-i\c  days,  ami 
then  lieuins  its  downward  jouiney. 

Thus  all  thioULih  tlu'  school  year  the  children  have  noted 
the  \aryinL;-  path  of  the  sini.  and  the  intluence  of  its  po-ition 
upon  th(.'  seasons.  They  have  learned  that  autuuni  ends  and 
winter  heiiins  when  the  <un  travels  in  its  lowot  arch,  ami 
that  s[ii'in'j  ends  and  summei'  hciiins  when  it  moves  alouii  its 
highest  [»ath  in  the  sky.  Its  middle  arch  tra\-ellinu'  noi'th- 
ward  0[)ened  the  spriiiii'.  while  the  same  path  in  its  southward 
journey  markdl  the  end  of  summer. 

r.atei-  in  tlu'  eoin'se.  when  the  children  need  to  study  the 
division  of  the  earth  into  zones,  we  mav  lia-<e  the  work  on 
these  oliservatii_)ns  ami  records.  A\'e  mav  then  tell  them  that 
liie  line--  on  the   earth   directly  under   the    lii'_i!ie-t    and    lowe-t 


96  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

paths  of  the  sun  are  the  tropics  ;  and  under  the  middle  arch, 
the  equator. 

Finding  the  difference  in  direction  between  the  lines  of 
light  from  the  extreme  paths,  will  show  then  approximatel}' 
the  width  of  the  torrid  zone.  A  little  reasoning  will  show 
that  the  light  shines  just  as  far  beyond  the  north  pole  as  the 
sun  travels  north  of  the  equator,  and  vice  versa  for  the  south 
pole.  Thus  all  the  circles  and  zones  may  be  taught  in  the 
advanced  work  l)y  means  of  these  elementary  observations. 
When  the  pui)ils  liave  added  to  all  this  the  apparently  fixed 
position  of  the  north  star,  they  have  laid  the  basis  for  the 
study  of  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis. 

Many  more  facts  may  be  drawn  from  this,  but  (Miough  has 
])een  given  to  show  how  much  lies  in  the  patli  of  simple 
observation.  Considering  the  importance  of  such  investi- 
gation, may  we  not  justly  conclude  that  this  beautiful  science 
should  not  begin  with  mere  memory  work  of  mystical  circles, 
zones  and  motions,  but  with  something  full  of  interest  and 
reality?  Important  lines  of  investigation  are  indicated  by 
the  following  questions.  As  some  of  them  must  continue 
througli  wdiole  seasons,  it  is  essential  that  the  pripils  record 
their  observations  in  their  7iote-boolis  throughoftt  entire  seasons. 
These  questions  are  to  be  anstvered  by  the  ddUlren.,  and  not  by 
the  teacher. 

The  motions  of  a  body  can  be  discovered  only  l)y  observing 
a  change  in  ])osilion  I'clative  to  at  least  two  other  bodies 
having  different  motions.  If  tlie  earth  and  sun  were  tlie  only 
heavenly  bodies,  man  might  still  be  ignorant  of  tlie  eartli's 
motions.  Tie  could,  of  course,  discover  motion,  but  would 
lack  means  of  determining  which  moved,  tlie  sun  or  tlie 
earth.  l>ut  by  ol)serving  IIk;  motions  of  tliese  two  bodies 
relative  to  distant  stars,  and  of   tlie   stars  to  each   other,  he 


MorroXS   OF   THE   EAllTll.  1*7 

ii;i-;  discovered  that  the  earth  has  several  nxAions.  This 
':'\[ilaiiis  why  <[Uesli()iis  aliout  tlie  moon  and  stars,  as  well  as 
t!ie  snn.  !ia\e  heen  included  in  these  elements  which  are  to 
[irepare  I'or  the  higher  study  of  mathematical  i:'coi:'raj)]iv. 

Cliildren  -hould  l)e  le<l.  as  early  as  pos.^ihle.  to  ohserve. 
Hot  I'rom  the  stand[ioint  of  aiipearance.  hut  of  ri'dlU'i,  When 
thcii-  invc^tiiiations  warrant  tlie  com[irehen>ion  of  a  sim[)le 
explanation  of  rotation  an<l  revoluticjn.  is  not  that  tlic  pi'oper 
time  to  make  it.  not  a  detailed  description,  hut  oulv  su(;h 
statt'inents  as  will  lead  them  to  think  of  these  two  real 
motions  r 

\'ery  full  answel's  to  these  (]Uestions  ou^ht  not  to  he 
e\[iectcd  fi'oni  tlie  pu|iils.  ]\lere  kiiowlcdLie  should  he 
seccindarv  in  importance  to  tlie  fact  that  the  ipie-tions  incite 
coUtinurd  ohservatioii.  and  awaken  intci'ot  in  the  suliject. 


Aj'pni:  lit  l-"i)rin  nil'/  Si-.'  nf  l/n  l-^;tr;h.  —  Ihiw  far  away  i-  tin' 
hi  ii'i/'  '11  .' 

(  ..iild  \iHi  .'vr  p-ai'h  it  'ly  1  nu'fhiiir^  w.-stward? 

W'liai  i<  ilp-  -liapc  (if  th''  hurizMii  mi  tin-  wati-r  m-  on  a  jilaiii'.-' 

1  )i)  ill.-  (■!.  iuds  \.:\\vA\  \\\<-  ]\"vv/j<\\  'i      Why  d'l  dny  appear  to'.' 

A\'liat  -.■i-ms  iM  h.'  th.'  -liapi'  of  tli-'  >ky  ? 

\\y>\\  far  can  \'<\\  .-■(•■'  wli'-u  vnu  knik  upward? 

Call  \iiii  .-'■••  a<  far  al'iii.;  ih''  ,-urfai-r  .if   ih..  rarth? 

\\\\\  niu-t  y.iii  .•limli  iii^-p  tu  >.■.'  a  urcat  ilislaiioc  V 

Fii.m  what  ]'aiM  ..f  a  -hip  can  saijnrs  iirst  s.-.'  laii.l? 

\\'hat  pan  of  a  ship  di>app"ar-  hisl  as  >h.'  .-ai!-  1. .  .-.'a  ? 

Whv  ar.'  liuht-hi.iL-v-  huilt   M-h? 

Wliat  is  til.'  >liapc  i)f  til.'  earth's  sha.l.)\\  on  ih.'  niomi  duriii;.;' 
an  ci'lip-,.'  V 

1  his  any  cii''  *-\r\  fuuiid  tin'  I'.l'^vs  (.f   tli.'  earth  V 

If  til.'  earth  w.'i-e  Hal.  iip.jii  what  j.art  wuuLl  tli.'  >iin  .-liiiie  when 
it  tir>t  ris.'-  ? 

(■'.111. I  tin;  .-nil  th.'ii  shin.'  upon  any  j.ai'i   wlu.'U  it  i-;  iii^ht  iier.'y 


98  THE   CHILD  AND   NATURE. 

Is  the  time  of  day  tlie  same  all  over  the  world?     Ileasoii? 

If  it  were  flat,  and  you  did  not  live  in  exactly  the  centre,  which 
would  be  longer,  the  forenoon  or  al'ternoon  '? 

If  it  were  ilat,  could  all  nations  see  the  same  or  different  stars  ? 

In  what  direction  do  the  sun  and  pole-star  seem  to  move  as  we 
travel  south  for  many  daysV 

\\'ho  first  sailed  around  the  globe  ? 

Do  you  know  the  story  of  "  Copernicus  and  the  niolx'  "? 

Apparent  Molioiis  of  the  Su}i.  —  What  is  tli(!  color  of  the  sun? 

lias  it  always  the  same  color  and  shape? 

How  large  does  the  sun  seem  to  be;  ? 

At  what  time  of  day  does  it  a})p('ar  largest? 

AVliei-e  is  the  sun  on  a  cloudy  day  ? 

Which  is  farther  from  us,  the  sun  or  moon?     Prove  it. 

Which  are  farther  away,  tlie  clouds  or  stars? 

Who  was  Wioebus? 

DOTATION. 

Wh(?re  is  the  sim  at  night? 
Of  what  use  is  night  ? 

What  do  we  call  tln^  light  just  bs't'ore  sunrise? 
Of  what  use  are  dawn  and  twilight? 

("an  you  ti'U  the  story  of  Cinderella,  and  why  the  prince  of  light 
can  lun'cr  overtake  the  daicn  ? 
Whicli  is  longer,  day  or  night? 

Are  all  days  e([iially  light,  and  all  nights  e(iually  dark?     AVhy? 
When  (hies  day  begin  ?   niglit? 
What  is  tli(!  meaning  of  A.^r.,  r.M.  and  ai.? 
Wlien  is  it  evening?      ilow  long  is  noon? 
AMiat  ciianges  occur  in  natures  dnring  <'\('ning?   morning? 
^Vllere  doe'S  the  sun  .seeni  to  I'ise? 
I)(jes  it  always  I'ise  in  the  same  jilace? 
Does  it  always  i'ise  at  the  same  time  of  day? 
How  often  does  the  sun  seem  to  travel  ar(Mmd  tlie  earth? 
In  w  hat  dii-eetion  ? 


TlIK   MOOX. 


99 


If  tlii^  sun  (loos  not  move  around  the  furtli,  how  else  may  day 
and  uiirlit  l>t'  cau<cii '.' 

Can  you  I'l'el  f)r  see  tlie  earth  turning? 

If  the  earth  turns  (or  rotates;  in  what  direction  must  its  rotation 
taki-  jilaet'?     Ilow  often y 

Do  you  know  the  >tory  of  Piuiiiton  ? 

RKVoi.ui  n)x. 

Does  the  sun  rise  earlier  in  suninier,  or  in  winter? 

When  does  it  rise  exactly  in  the  east,  and  set  in  the  west? 

AVhen  docs  it  rise  farthest  north?  south? 

Wlien  do  we  have  hjiigest  days?  ni^'hts? 

When  are  day  and  night  equal? 

Is  the  sun  always  in  the  same  placi.'  at  noon? 

J)oes  it  ever  eoiin;  directly  overhead? 

In  what  season  do  tr(>i's  cast  the  lonL;e>t  shadow  al  noon? 

^^'hl■n  does  the  sun  travel  highest  in  th(>  sky  at  noon? 

^\'ht■^  dues  it  move  in  its  lowe>t  areh  ? 

A\'ht/ri'  is  the  sun's  path  when  we  havi-  longest  days? 

How  long  tini(!  dofS  it  riMjiiire  to  make  the  c]iang(,'  fmin  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  arch? 

What  si-a>on  begins  when  the  siui  is  in  it^  lowest  ]xith  ? 

Is  thf  sun  niiw  travidling  toward  its  higli  or  low  arch? 

Mark  till'  liiiiii  of  the  sunlight  on  your  -choolroom  \\in<r  oi-  wall 
at  lea.-t  one  day  each  week  at  u'lm/,  and  <lisi'ti\'rr  whieh  way  the 
sun  seems  to  travt-l,  when  it  is  fai-thf>t  north  and  Miuth.  whi'U  it 
si'ems  to  sto]>,  change  <lirection,  and  tra\cl  most  swiftly. 

What  uses  of  the  sun  do  the  following  words  .Mi-uct  ?  Day, 
summer,  melt.  dry.  tinic-talijc,  compass.  dale<.  niodn.  fruit,  e^i^s. 
force,  scavenger,  winds,  rain,  seed,  tea.  coloi',  Kleach.  rainhow. 


ApiHirihi    Moiinii.<   of  the    Mi> 


How    often 


■s    the    niooii 


Wlien  does  it  rise? 

In  what  direction  docs  the  niooii  Seem  to  tr;ivel 

Does  it  always  move  in  tlie  same  path? 


100  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Do  the  1110011  and  sun  rise  in  the  same  place? 

When  the  moon  is  rising,  could  you  not  go  to  the  horizon  and 
touch  it? 

Wliich  is  longer,  a  day  measured  by  the  sun  or  moon? 

When  does  the  moon  travel  in  its  highest  arch? 

Which  seems  to  travel  faster,  the  sun  or  moon? 

Does  the  moon  always  appear  near  the  same  stars? 

In  what  direction  does  it  seem  to  move  among  the  stars  ? 

Note  its  position  near  some  l)right  star,  and  discover  in  how 
many  days  it  will  return  to  about  the  same  spot  at  the  same  hour. 

Where  is  the  moon  during  the  day  ? 

Why  are  not  all  nights  lighted  by  the  moon? 

What  is  the  "harvest  moon  "  ? 

Is  tliere  a  man  in  the  moon  ? 

Do  the  spots  on  the  moon  ever  seem  to  change? 

IIow  often  do  we  have  a  new  moon  ? 

Draw  all  the  shapes  and  positions  of  tlie  moon  you  have  seen. 

Where  is  the  sun  when  we  have  a  full  moon?  new  moon? 

Are  the  ends  of  the  crescent  turned  toward  or  from  the  sun? 

Is  the  sun  east  or  west  from  the  moon  when  it  is  waxing?  when 
waning? 

Where  is  the  sun  when  the  moon  is  gibbous?  crescent? 

Wliat  part  of  the  moon  is  always  light? 

\Miat  part  ol'  the  earth  is  always  light? 

When;  is  the  sun  when  we  see  an  eclipse  of  the  moon? 

AVhere  is  tiie  moon  when  we  have  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  daytime? 

What  are  iiie  uses  of  the  moon? 

Ajij/anmt  Mulloiis  of  tin:  Shirs,  PUnirls  etc. 

IINIU)    AXIS. 

Wliat  Ix'couics  of  the  >tars  wJicn  the  sun  rises? 

AVli(;i'<'  is  till'  pole-star? 

A\'hi'r(!  is  it  in  winter  ?  summer? 

^\'ilel■('  is  it  wiicn  tlic  sun  simmus  to  travel  nortliward  ? 


rilK    STARS. 


101 


Wliei'i'  is  it  at  nii;lit '.•'  I'lU'ly  in  tln'  niui-iiiii^ '.•'  at  ikmhi  .' 

Dues  it  .-ei'in  to  luovt''.'  (I'lipils  caiuii.t  ili~cu\iT  tin-  uxraiMiy 
inotimi  of  the  earth.) 

I'ut  a  --tick  in  tli*.'  i;roinnl,  j-ointiii-  to  I'olaii.-.  ai;<l  s<'t>  ]['  diirin.;' 
any  jiait  ot"  the  year  it  moves  out  of  liin'.  (Allliou-ii  tin;  axi>  ol 
the  earth  will  not  jioint  directly  toward  the  Xorth  Star  for  ahout 
three  hundred  years,  the  stick  si-t  in  the  L^round  is  a}iproxiiiiat'ly 
l>arallel  to  the  earth's  axis.) 

In  what  seasons  does  the  sun  seem  to  ap^jroaeh  tin.'  Xoiih  Mar 
day  after  day  i 

Wliat  use  do  sailors  make  of  this  star'.' 

Could  they  not  as  well  use  any  other?      AMiy/ 

Have  you  heard  the  story  of  Callisto? 

llo  lAlloX. 

Do.'-  Polari>  I'is.'  and  s-t? 
Where  is  th.>  Creat  Dipprr  (I'rsa  >rajoi-)y 
Which  of  its  stars  ar^'  called  ••  point'T-  "' ''     \\\\\  ? 
is  th"  (Ireal  Dipjii'r  always  in  the  same  iilac"? 
In  what  direction  does  it  semi  to  tra\">'r.' 
Does  it  move  in  th''  sani''  diriction  a>  th--  oih.'i-  siars? 
Does  its  hamile  evri-  j.<,ini  toward  tlc'  North  Siar? 
ill   what  pail   of    th.'   l,ittle   Dipper  (I'r-a   .Minor)   is  th.'   \orth 
Star? 

Does  the  Little  Dippt'i'  appi'ar  to  mov.-'.''      In  what  din'ction '.■' 

I  )oes  either  dipper  ever  dip  lielo\s-  the  hori/ou  ' 

Do  thi'y  e\ei-  vary  in  distane'""  fro:n  I'olari-? 

(an  you  find  tic  W  (Cassiopeia)  and  the  rii-ia<le.-  y 

Do  thry  riv  and  --t  V 

Who  We're  Perseus  and  Andromeda  V 


i:r,voi.rriox. 
Is  the  (Jreat  Dipper  in  the  same  ]ilace  every  evening;-  ? 
Can  you  see  it  every  starliL^hl  evenim;'  'i 

Can  yon  see  the  .\orihcrn  Cross  and  the  Pl'-iad.'-  ev^ry  siarli-ht 
evenine-  ? 


102  THE   CHILD   AND   NATUEE. 

In  what  season  does  the  Little  Dipper  liang  down  from  Polaris 
in  tlie  early  evening? 

In  what  season  does  the  Great  Dipper  pass  over  Polaris  in  the 
early  evening? 

Which  is  longer,  a  day  measured  by  the  sun  or  by  a  star?  How 
much  ?      Time  it. 

In  how  long  a,  time  would  this  difference  amount  to  a  whole  day? 

Can  you  find  Vega  (in  Lyra)  and  'riiul)an  (in  Draco)  ?  (These 
two  stars  should  be  indicated  if  the  teacher  wishes  to  explain  in 
the  advanced  work  the  gyratory  motion  of  the  earth.  Thuban  may 
also  enter  later  into  the  study  of  the  history  of  Egypt,  that  having 
been  the  pole-star  when  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops  was  built,  about 
f(jur  thousand  years  ago.  Vega  will  be  the  pol(!-star  in  about 
thirteen  thousand  years.) 

IIow  can  you  distinguish  the  planets  from  the  stars? 

Try  to  coinit  the  stars. 

AVliere  is  the  Milky  Way?     Is  it  always  in  the  same  place? 

What  is  the  color  of  INIai'S  ?     Venus? 

What  do  we  mean  by  morning  and  evening  stars? 

Which  is  morniug  star  now?  evening  star? 

Do  you  know  any  stories  or  myths  about  the  stars,  clouds,  moon, 
sun  and  earth  ? 

What  is  a  comet  ? 

Does  it  rise  and  set  like  Iho  stars  ? 

Is  its  head  or  tail  turned  loward  the  sun? 

What  are  meteors  and  shooting  stars? 

In  what  months  do  w^e  generally  see  the  greatest  number  ol 
"  shooting  stai's  "? 

Draw  a  star,  a  comet  and  a  planet. 

M'liat  are  the  uses  of  stars?  plaiuits  ? 

.T.     CLI.nATE. 

ITrat  and  ?i[(>'t^lure.  —  Which  is  wariuei",  day  or  night?     Wliy? 
Is  it  generally  warmer  when  the  sun  is  rising  or  setting?     Why? 
Whv  does  il  become  wariuer  as  the  sun  rises  hiiiher? 


CI.  IMA  ii:. 


0;; 


W'li.T-'  i-  tli<' Mi!i  elm  iii;^  lii'-  li'itloi  jiail  of   I  he  day  V 

Why  is  ii  not  liottiv-t  at  iii'nMav  ? 

At  what  tiiiK'  do  wi-  rrcTivf  the  ino-t  diirct  ray>  ? 

W'hirli  ai-i'  wai'iii'T,  loiii;' tir  short  da\'-'.' 

\\  ill  a  -i[iiai-  yard  ot'  -urlac'  i'rrri\T  a  L;irati'r  i[Uaiility  ot  \'iTti- 
ral  i'V  ol>lii|U'  i  ay-  ! 

Wdii'-ii  ra\"s  tra\-id  tlii'oii'^'li  iiioi-i'  at  iMo-phcii' ? 

W'lnrii  would  111'  moll'  easily  ihi-owu  oi'f  ? 

Wdiich  wi'uld  sti-iki'  with  -avairr  loiv? 

Wdiat  pait  of  a  hall,  if  hrld  i:i  tin'  Hiii-hiiii'.  would  r.'ci'i\r  th.' 
niostdiiccl  rays?  tlu'  iiio>t  ^lalll  Iml; '.' 

\\dii'r-'.    ih.-n.    is    tin-   hoiti-.-i     [^art    of    the    cailli?       \\di('ri'   an- 

the  cold   COUUI  I'ics  ? 

Ill  what  season  are  the  i-ays  mosi  >!antin;_;-  al  iiooii? 

\\  hat  chang'es  take  [.lae'.'  in  ihe  m  a-on>  a-  tiie  sun  tra\eLs  north- 
ward y 

Which  is  colder,  tln'  hiivnoi.n  or  afl"nio,,n  ?      WdiyV 

Wdiirh  is  (-(ild'T,  s]ii'in'4  oi- ani  uinn  ■.•'      \\  h\  ■' 

\Much  is  th"  holt. -.-I   nionth  '.■' 

Wdiei-e  is  the  -nil  al  that   tiiu"  '.'' 

How  inanv  months  ot'  waiau  weathtr  do  wr  ha\e'.-' 

\\di'n  ai'e  ■■  do.;-day-  "  ? 

Why  i-  it  no!  the  hoin-sl  part  of  th"  day  wlr-n  lie  sun  is  lii-h"-t 
in  liie  >ky  'f 

Wdiv  i-  it  U'M  the  h(]il>--!  pai't  of  ih"  \.Mr  wlnui  th"  sun  moves  in 
in-  lin^he-i  ar.'h  ! 

\\di"i-e  is  til"  sun  duianu  th"  e,dd"st   paiM  of   th"  y"arV 

I-  it  col(l.-,t  ai   niidui-^nt.  or  iu-t   iH-fiU"  -nnri-"'." 

Wdiy  i-  it  not  t  h"  coldi--t  month  wlcn  th"  .-im  is  in  it  s  lowest  aivh  ? 

Wdi"!'"  i-  ih"  -un  wh"n  "a"h  -"a-on  oi'i'iis'.' 

Si.uih  tVoMi  n-.  af"  lii"  -uii'-  ray-  nior"  dii-i'et  or  n;orr  >lant  iiiu'/ 

I-  it  w  arni"!'  lU'  cold"r  I  h"r"  than  h"r"  ?      Wdiy  '.•' 

I)"seiih"  a  winter  day.  -uinnrr.  -['rinu.  autumn. 

Whieh    -eason   do   \oU   like   In^.t?        \\dl\    / 
Wdiat   are  the  -ImhI  >  ,.f  caeh  -ea-on'.-' 


104  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Wliicli  side  of  a  building  or  hill  is  warmest  ? 
On  which  side  of  an  oast-and-wost  wall  does  the  snow  melt  first? 
Which    side    of    an   east-and-west    mountain-range   would   be 
warmer? 

Is  it  warmer  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  a  liill? 

Why  are  mountains  good  summer-resorts  ? 

Where,  then,  in  warm  countries  might  we  find  cold  weather? 

Can  you  think  of  one  use  of  plateaus  in  hot  countries  ? 

Where  might  snow  be  found  even  with  the  sun  overhead? 

From  what  direction  do  our  warm  winds  come?  cold  winds? 

Is  it  generally  warmer  or  cooler  on  a  windy  or  a  calm  day? 

Is  the  air  warmer  or  cooler  after  a  rainstorm  ? 

\V'hen  do  you  like  to  have  cloudy  weather  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  fog  on  a  w'indy  day?     Did  it  last  long? 

Do  people  like  to  build  houses  in  swampy  places?     Why  ? 

AVlien  do  you  feel  more  active,  on  dark  and  misty  or  clear  days  ? 

"Why  do  people  go  to  the  seashore  in  summer  ? 

Of  what  uses  are  land  and  sea  breezes  ? 

Upon  what  does  the  temperatui'e  of  a  sea-breeze  depend? 

In  what  condition  would  wind  come  from  a  warm  current  of 
watin-? 

When  does  water  stagnate? 

Which  kind  of  country  affords  better  drainage,  high  and  hilly, 
or  low  and  level? 

Which  is  the  most  unhealthful  part  of  your  own  town  ? 

INIake  a  daily  record  of  tin'  temperature  at  noon  for  a  year, 
and  lind  the  avera<2,('. 

Record  the  I'ainy,  cloudy  and  sunny  days,  and  compare 
the  mnnbers. 

Set  a  tul)  or  large  pan  out  in  each  rainstorm,  and  measure 
the  quantity  of  rainfall.  Do  the  same  in  each  snowstorm  ; 
and  Jiavinij;  found  the  inches  of  snowfall,  melt  a  quantity, 
and  estimate  Ih^w  many  inches  of  wider  ari'  equivalent. 


(  l.lMATi:. 


lUf) 


\i>h-  the  iliroctiiiiis  (if  llif  wiii'l-.  nii'l  discosiT  wliii'h  prc- 
\ail:  :il>i>,  ■>\liii-li  [iirri'ili'  ruin  or  ^nnw  >toiiii>.  uiiil  lini  or 
ciiM  \v;i\<'--. 

'I'hi-^  li''i'>(iii;i!  (tli^tTvatioii  nii'l  rrcuril.  wiiiK'  Drruiiviiii;- 
liulr.  if  aiiv.  of  llif  I'CLi'uhu'  school  tiiac  will  proNc  of  iiif-ti- 
iiiaMc  value  ill  tlir  aihaiicnl  woi'k.  No  true  tcaclitT  will. 
o|'  coiiisr.  a>-i'jii  a  crilaiii  uiiinlicr  <if  tlic->c  qiicstioiis  for 
cadi  ilay'-  uoi'k.  aid  cxiktI  ilic  cliiMrcii  lo  liml  tlu'  solutions 

ill  1 i\>.      Not  the   uicrr   answer,  lull    llic  iji'^r/   ''>  ilisrun  r. 

>linuM  he  tlif  aim.  'I'ln'  aii--wcr-  aic  in  iiatuir.  and  there 
alone  .-hoiiM  the  diiMi'ii  read  ilieiii.  Let  us  iiiaki'  the  same 
oli-ei'\-alioii^.  keeji  the  >ame  iccol'd-^.  aiid  perform  the 
same  exjierimeiits.  that  we  reijuireof  our  little  iiu]iils:  or  as 
!"ro<hel  ha-  dilcetfd.    ••(/oiiie.   let   us  li\i'   with  the  diildreli.  " 


106 


TUE   CHILD  AND  NATURE. 


CIIAITKR    VII. 

r.-LlFE. 

It  is  ;i  \vell-ivc()<inizo<l  fact  lliaf  [dants  ami  animals  are 
organi/A'd  to  corrcspoud  with  their  natural  environments  ; 
i.e.,  in  tlieir  requirements  of  food,  shelter  ete..  tlu'V  are  jx-r- 
feetly  ailaj)te(l  to  the  pliysieal  conditions  of  their  habitats. 
Whether  the  form  of  life  lie  a  dii'eet  I'esult  of  natural  sur- 
roundinus,  or  not,  the  fact  of  correspondence  remains  ;  and 
it  is  evicU'nt  that,  as  the  llora  and  fauna  of  e\'ery  country 
are  determined  hy  immutahle  conditions,  a  Ivnowledoc  of  these 
simple  laws  is  essi'ntial  to  the  [)r(;[ier  study  of  distribution. 

/.    I'l.Ayrs. 

Every  school  should  have  a  Li'arden  spot  in  which  tlic  chil- 
di'cn  could  woi'k  and  study.  Uut  if  wc  cannot  ij,()  out  into 
nature,  we  nuist  ln'inu-  nature  into  the  schoolroom.  Let  us 
intei'est  the  children  by  l)eini:'  lii'^t  interested  oui'selves. 
(ii\'e  eacli  child  some  woi'k  to  do.  One  may  plant  urass- 
see(l  in  wet  cotton:  a  second  iii'ow  l!a.\see(l  in  a  sponge;  :i 
third  make  a  cup  l»y  dii:L!.in'j,'  out  a  sweet-potato,  iillinn'  with 
watei',  and  hanuinu'  in  the  sunshine;  a  foui'th  put  a  sweet- 
potat(j  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  allow  the  beautiful  vine 
that  will  soon  sliodt  out  \o  l:i-ow  about  tlie  wall  :  another 
make  a  llower-pot  from  a  common  potato,  beinu'  careful  not 
to   injure   tlii'   '••eyes,"   and   j)lant    in    it  a  (lerman    ivy  or  a 


I' LA  ST. 


Vu 


siii;ill  (iiiion.  ()no  di-  two  aii-plaiit-,  will  aUo  i!iti-ii--t  mi'l 
iiistni'-t  the  cliiMrcn.  A  few  \c'^rtaMi-<  >lioulil  In-  -pi  (jiiti-'l 
ill  a  (lark  cfHai'.  aii<l  llicir  .sjiioiits  coiiiparcl  with  tl)(><(- 
LMiiwii  ill  the  suiili'jlit. 

IIa\c'  llic  iiiipils  make  lioxcs  a.liriiit  a  foot  -iiiiai-(,-  liy  six 
inches  (Ifcj).  lilliii;^  S(Hiic  with  loam.  olh<Ts  with  >aii'l  aii'l 
chiv.  Ill  each  l»ox  [ilaiit.  i'.'^..  colli.  Im-.-ui-.  acoiii-.  ricr. 
cotton,  wheat.  coftVf;  anil  oraii^-s.  Set  one  li(>\  in  the  ^mi- 
shine,  another  in  thesliaile-;  kee])  one  wet.  another  (Iry  :  piit 
one  ill  a  warm  room,  another  in  a  cohl  one.  .Mark  the  >\\i>\ 
wiiere  caf'h  kind  of  seeil  is  phicei],  with  date'  <if  iilantiii',:. 
Now  the  raci;  l.enin-.  ^^'hieh  plant  will  appear  lir-t  ?  .Mark 
its  (late,  and  watch  for  the  next.  Lrt  the  chililnai  make 
notes  of  all  they  oli^eiN'e.  for  laii'jiiau'e  le--on-.       A--  -ouii    a- 

new   Iialne>   are   JIcimJimI.    'jive   them. 

\\\  this  ileN'ice.  the  pupils  will  ilisci)\-i'r  that  xime  plalll-- 
LTiow  l»e>t  ill  --aii'l.  others  ill  loam  or  clav:  -oiiie  in  w^t  -mH. 
other.-,  in  moi-t  :  >omc  in  eoc]  place-;,  other-,  in  waim.  Thev 
may  aUo  ili>c( j\-ci'  that  L:rain--tal!:-  ■_; ro w i n .;  in  oni  kind  o!' 
soil  are  lai'jer  and  >troir_;er  than  in  anotlni.  \\'h\?  TIma- 
mav  compare  the  (-(.[(jt  ;iiid  ^tren'_ith  of  plant-,  Liinwin.;  in 
liidit  and  ilark  places,  in  wet  and  dr\  -oil  etc  (  )iir  fail 
tli--eovered  is  worth  a  himilreil  told  !i\'  the  t^'ai-lai'.  'i'li'' 
power  to  di>co\-er  is  a  c<in>tant  >oiirce  nt'  pha-nii'  tu  i-\(i\ 
one  pos-,e-,>in'j:  it.  I.ct  lis  not  (Ic-trnv  thi-,  mean--  of  iiappi- 
ne-.s  in  the  children  liy  tcllin'..:'  them  what  their  own  effoii- 
II, ay  re\-eal  with  d''|i'_dit. 

Thus  they  ar(.-  led  to(;iiser\'e  that  (liffn  i-nt  kind-,  of  \eei-t:i- 
lioii  ar<,' dependent  upon  the  condition--  of  -I'il.  moi-tun-  and 
heat.  A  ha-is  i-  th.-rdiy  laid  for  tin-  iiit -l  I  ij'iit  -Hidy  of  di-- 
tri'iution.  (  )cc:i-,li>nal  \i-its  should  ''c  made  to  'ji  viu'imii^.-- 
lo    .lee-    forci'jn    j^lant-.       I-je-i  )Ui  :j;^r    ti)c    eliiMren    to    maiN''    a 


108  THE   (IIILJ)    Ay  J)    NATURE. 

collection  of  :is  iiuiiiy  staple  products  as  [)ossible,  and  pr(_)ciiro 
pictures  of  others.  Give  language  lessons  upon  their  uses, 
and  tell  intt'resting  facts  relating  to  their  growth. 

Then  lead  the  pupils  to  classif}'  them  according  to  their 
various  uses,  e.g.:  food,  rlcc^  /cheat;  luxuries,  spices,  tea; 
clotliing,  cotton,  Jlax;  homes,  j)//te,  hamlxjo ;  fuel,  jj/ne,  oak; 
medicines,  j>oY>^^//,  cinclujiia;  manufacturt-s,  nuihogauy,  ^mijfle. 
Also  classify  according  to  i)arts  used,  e.g.  :  trunks,  ebon;/, 
ivdlnut;  leaves,  tea,  loI>aci'o  :  I'oots,  iiuinioc,  sassafras ;  barks, 
corlx-oah',  cinchona;  seeds,  rice,  n-heat ;  sa|)s,  maple,  pine; 
fruits,  orancje,  grape;  buds,  doces,  jioppy.  .\gain,  grou[) 
them  as  i)lants  that  grow  in  hot.  warm,  lempcrate  and  cold 
countries  ;  then  in  very  wet.  moist  and  dry  climate.  Study 
tlie  important  ones  only,  and  thus  prc[)are  also  for  commerce. 
After  the  pupils  h;i\e  studied  \.\\v  relief  and  'heating  of  tlie 
globe,  with  their  effects  upon  di'ainage,  tlu'v  can  locate  the 
great  natui'al  garden-spots,  and  cover  them  witii  i)lant-life. 

AVhen  I'cading  or  gi\'ing  descriptions  of  [)lants.  if  the  names 
of  any  places  .ai'ise.  try  to  give  the  ])upils  some  idea, 'of  their 
true  location  :  do  not  leave  them  lloaling.  Jt  is  also  inn)or- 
tant  that  pupils  discover  the  means  by  which  plants  are  dis- 
])ei'sed,  and  the  l)arriei's  to  their  dispersal  in  the  vai'iations  of 
the  surface.  The  following  (piestions  ai'e  intende(l  to  suggest 
lines  of  observation.  'I'hey  should,  of  course,  Im'  varied  to 
suit  dill'erent  localities. 

Jlrldliun  In  Si,i/,  Moi.^litre.  and  I/nil. — \Vliat  [ilants  grow  in 
swamps?  in  sandy  fields V 

III  what  kind  of  soil  an'  the  licsi  potatoes  rais(>d'?  wlu'atr  cornV 

WliiTi'  do  watrr-lilirs  -TOW  ?  Ihistl.'>? 

What  plants  an'  often  seen  e'rowiiig  from  asiiesV 

Wliei-e  do  (a'aiiherries  gi-o\\V  I'ice  y 

Why  do  fanners  ••liill"  their  corn? 


I'L.WTS. 


lull 


IldW  (loi's  iiaturo  loosen  tlie  soil  eucli  year? 

What  ai-o  wct-ils  ?      Xaiin'  thi'f.'. 

What  (l<ifs  the  exiire>si()ii,  --'rhi'  soil  ha-  I'un  out,"  iin-aii? 

IIo'A  (!o  tarin.-r-  -  icst  "  thi-  hui'l'.-' 

()ii  wiial  part  ol'  a  t'a'in  ran  ihf  hf\ivi>.'-l  ero]!  of  -ra--  !),■  l;i'(j\\hV 

W'liat  -oil  j.roiliiei's  th<'  i-oarsest  L;ra--  ami  (•oi'ii--taik>  V 

\\'hi"-ii  hiju-e-iilaiits  i^Mjiiiri'  the  rieh^v-t  snily 

\\'ili  eoni  -row  ln'ttt-r  in  loam  or  sand,  it'  w.'ll  wat^rfil  ? 

W'liat  Covers  the'  outside  of  a  corn->talk  ?   of  lianilioo  V 

When  is  tln'  be-t  lime  to  water  c>iit-d'ii,r  plant-  ? 

"Whieh  of  youi'  liou-e'-plants  need  the  nei-i  wat'-r? 

Sprinkle  wati'r  upon  the  leaves,  hut  not  ,,i\  tiie  soil,  then  /vV" 
cf:r.<a  :   whieh  prevents  withei'in;^? 

Why  d(jes  putting  the  taid-  of  flow er-.-tenis  in  water  keep  ilie 
leaves  and  Mo-^oms  fre-h  V 

Why  not  ]>ut  the  l<'aves  ami  i>lM--.Miii,  in  ihe  wal'.-r'.'' 

Whieh  plant-  -pi-out  nio-t  ((uiek!\'  in  watej-'.' 

\Vliai  hrin^--  f 1  to  the  |-,,nis  of  plant-'/ 

Wle-n  -eeds  erow  in  wet  eott.in.  wher.-  du  they  L;et  I'ood? 

\\'hieh  plants  be~t  endui-e  a  diMimlit  V 

What  tfee^  or  iilauts  ha\';  no  le;i\-s? 


\\'liat  ve-vtal)I>'-  and  fruit<  riii'Mi  in  eai-ly  .-unmi'T '.■' 

What  on<\s  I'ipen  in  late  ;ii|i  umn  '.•' 

Whieh  ai'e  often  d.'Sii'oy.Ml  l>v  early  fro~t  / 

^\'hat  IS  winter  wheat'/     ^Vhen  is  it  -own'/ 

Of  what  ][<.■  ']<  -now  to  plants  '.■' 

Why  have  fre.-s  i:enerally  lon;^'  roots'? 

How   deep  into  the  -rouiid  do  they  penetrat"  '/ 

What  plant-  ,-ro\v  heiter  in  the  shade'/ 

^\'!lat  one-  die  every  autunni  '.•'      Li\e  all  winl-r'/ 

Whieh  house-plant<  iie.Ml  mo^i  .-uidiuht  / 

What  .-e'(>(ls  must  be  sown  in  ''arly  spring  ?     AVh}''/ 

What  ones  mav  Ije  -own  in  late  >uniiner? 


110  THE   CHILI)   AND   NATURE. 

Xame  throo  ])lants  that  l>looiii  in  early  spring. 

What  ones  will  yield  two  crops  a  year? 

IIow  long-  does  it  take  potatoes  to  ripen  from  the  seed? 

In  what  season  does  sap  flow  into  the  trees? 

Does  it  ever  flow  back? 

^^'hat  are  evergreen  trees  ? 

How  are  the  seeds  of  the  pine  protected? 

What  trees  drop  theii'  leaves  in  antuinn? 

When  do  the  ieaviis  change  color  ?  frnits  ? 

Wliat  ti'ees  are  often  injured  by  early  spring  weather  followed 
by  frost '' 

Why  are  many  Ijuds  covered  with  pitch,  and  j^ai'tly  filled  with 
woolly  iibl'e  ? 

Means  oj\  and  Harriers  to,  ] )l.<j>ers(i'.  —  A\'hat  planis  send  out 
runners  or  shoots? 

How  far  can  such  jilants  spread? 

Can  they  ci-oss  rivers,  meadows,  mountains  or  desei'ts  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  little  tid't  (pap]>us)  in  the  dandelion  blossom? 

Draw  a  maple  seed  ;   an  ash  seed. 

What  animals  scattei-  grain  and  nuts? 

A\'hat  biids  feed  upon  se<'ds  ? 

In  what  seasons  d(^  birds  cari'y  seeds  fai'thest  ? 

Xame  three  common  plants  that  will  grow  from  slips. 

What  se(Mls  are  so  light  that  they  may  be  blown  about  ? 

A\'liel'e  do  the  seeds  of   the  [line  grow  ? 

What  seeds  will  lloat  in  water? 

A\'her<'  minht  such  seeds  be  carried? 

bi  what  ways  may  seeds  be  scattei'cd  over  a  ])lain? 

IIow  may  they  be  (•ai'i'i(Ml  across  ri\'ers,  mountains  etc.? 

Of  what  matei'ials  do  l)ir(ls  build  their  nests? 

What  weeds  are  destroyed  with  greatest  dilliculty  ? 

What  harm  is  done  by  weeds? 

Name  an  enemy  of  tlie  potato,  apjile,  tomato,  wheat,  grape. 

Wliat  l)irds  feed  upon  corn?  rice  ?   berries  ? 

What  plants  can  sui'vive  a  long  drttught? 


PLAXTS. 


Ill 


Tf  a  fruit  roquin'S  a  lony.  \vanii  soasmi  for  ripening'.  \vlion>  can 
it  not  siirvi\i'  '.■' 

What  kind  of  [ijiiuts  can  urow  in  cold  countiii's  ? 

W'liat  {iri'\'cnt<  t)rangcs,  suL;ar-cant;  and  [line-api'lcs  from  growing 
in  northern  hinds  V 

^^'ln'n  were  iiotatocs  and  toluicco  lirst  usnl  in  Kurope  '/ 

From  what  country  did  we  lirst  olitain  tomatoes? 

Where  was  liie  tir.-t  wlieat  lirnuglit  from  to  this  country? 

Wliicli  of  i)ur  common  grains  are  not  native  here? 

Csc^  of  l^ldiits.  —  ^Vhat  are  tlie  most  important  six  food- 
phi  nt.s? 

\\'liat  Icinds  of  cloth  an'  made  from  iilantsV 

From  wliat  is  linen  made? 

Name  six  important  medicine  i>Iants. 

\\"hat  is  tar?  turpentine?  oakum?  jute? 

Wiiat  use  is  made  (jf  liemlock-liark  ? 

What  is  tapi<i(_'a,  and  how  is  it  pri-pareiF.'' 

Ilnw  i--  India-ru!>i>er  obtained  ? 

Xame -i\-  importani  caliinel   wi)od<. 

What  arr  the  uses  of  I'amlini)?   jiine? 

\\'h;tt  arlii'ji's  are  made  from  hark?  sap?  buds?  leaves?  Mos- 
Sdln^?    Sfrd-  ?    routs?    o-ier>  ? 

What  jilaiit--  >Mpply  valuaMe  oil-,? 

What  I'ommnn  animals  feed  upon  plants? 

Of  wlial  n-e  are  leaves  to  llie  atniosphi're? 

^\'hr^t  plant-  are  usc(l  to  flavor  drinks? 

Name  fniir  <ii'namental  trees. 

What  ainmals  would  die  if  ail  the  trer-  were  eul  down? 


( ii-itiijis  far  Sjiiridl  f.,  .<.<ni,s.  —  liice.  wheat,  iiiaize,  v\i\  oats;  I'ine, 
maple,  t.-ak.  curk-nak.  palms  (oil.  dale,  I'attanj.  mah<igany;  cotton, 
flax.  heiu]).  jute  ;  sugar-cane,  hamboo  ;  t.M.  coffee,  cocoa,  tnliat'co; 
poppy,  cinchona:  orange,  lemon,  breadd'ruit,  yam;  pepp^'r,  nut- 
meg, <'l()ve,  cinnamon. 


112  THE   CHILI)  AND  NATURE. 


2.    AM  M  M.S. 

Fooil  and  Strnclure.  — -^^'Jlat  do  the  following'  animals  {(hmI  iipon  ? 
Horse,  sheep,  hen,  duck,  rabbit,  squirrel,  bee,  lly,  butterfly,  S[)i(ler, 
ni08(|uito,  mouse,  eagle,  whale,  bear,  eaniel,  deer,  elephant,  giraffe, 
lion,  silkworm,  monkey. 

What  use  does  the  cat  make  of  liei'  claws? 

Compare  a  cat's  paw  with  a  dog's. 

How  does  a  dog  seize  its  prey? 

AVhat  is  the  difference  between  a  duck's  bill  and  an  eagle's  beak? 

How  is  (uich  used  ? 

Write  a  careful  description  of  a  duck's  bill. 

"Why  is  the  eagle's  beak  curved  ? 

How  do  the  feet  of  the  hen  and  duck  differ? 

Can  ducks  roost?  geese  ?  pigeons? 

Has  a  hen  teeth  ?     Has  any  bird  ? 

Why  do  not  the  horse  and  cow  bite  (?)  off  grass  in  the  saiiu! 
manner  ? 

How  does  the  spider  captui'e  its  food?      Draw  a  s]iider's  web. 

Where  do  long-legged  l)irds  generally  Hnc? 

Wliat  birds  have  long  necks? 

Where  do  they  obtain  their  food? 

Why  do  some  birds  fly  about  in  the  night? 

Wluit  do  they  feed  upon  ? 

Would  a  sluirt  neck  l)e  as  useful  to  a  gii'aftV  as  a  long  one;  ? 

Wliat  fish  uses  a  gui:  ?  a  line  and  bait? 

Draw  a  ^\■ood2)eckel•"s  foot  and  tongu(_\ 

Wh(>re  do  birds  gel  their  food  in  winter? 

Wliy  do  some  fly  away  ?     ^\'here  do  they  go  ? 

What  are  l)ii-ds  of  jKissage  ?      Xanu!  tlire(>. 

What  animals  feed  ujion  gra>s  ?  grains?  fruits?   Ih-sli  ? 

Where  do  sheep  and  goats  like  best  to  feed? 

What  animals  chew  the  cud? 

What  cnaines  the  camel  to  fi-avel  so  longatime  williout  (?)wat{u-? 

Of  wluil  use  is  the  hump  to  the  cann-l  ? 


.lynr.iLs. 


U.] 


\\\i\  Wi-yo  iiiir  I'niiit  teeth  luail-'  sliarjH-r  tli:ui  oiii'  I'liclc  nuc^  ? 

W'liat  woii.lil  result  it  the  eat  had  hool's,  the  horse  \\iiiL;>  ami  a 
I'.'ak.  thi'  nioiHe  li,,nis.  thr  doj;  a  hill,  the  woudi'ecker  weh-feet  '.•' 

()ll;4hl    liel   .-^uirrels  to   ha\'e  wiiiLj'S? 

W'hv  \\r]\'  not  the  t'e'-t  of  all  aiiiiiials  made  alike  ?   the  mouths  '! 

l)i'>erilic  a>  many  kinds  of  feet  and  mouths  as  you  ean,  and  tell 
thi_'ii-  |iarl  ieular  uses. 

What  animals  '^I't  their  t'ood  from  thi'  water  ■.•'      llow  '.■' 

llowdoi-saii  elephant  drink  V  camel?  hen  y  horse?  dog?  nios- 
i[niti  <  ':   man  ? 

( 'nr,  rimj  iiu'l  CHiiiitl' .  —  I )o  clothes  m;.ke  or  k''e])  us  warm  ? 
W'liat  animals  are  ('ovci-ed  with  I'lir?   leathers? 
What    covi'iinL;     ha-     the     loli>ter  ?     oy>ter?     snake?     codlish  ? 
l.uttrrlly  ?    fi-o--?   cat? 

W'liat  ilo  w-  call  till'  hair  on  a  >lii'i'ji  ?   l)ea\'er  ?   pii;  ? 

<  M    w  hat  n-i'  is  iiair  to  animals  ? 

I  la'.'''  all  aniniiils  haif  '.•' 

(  )f  what   u-''  i>  the  In  irsc?-,  fail  and  mane  ? 

W'h\'  is  a  girl's  hail'  lo!i'_;'''r  than  a  lio\V  ? 

\\  hi.'li  ai'-   /varnii'i',  l'<'al  h''i'-  oi'  fur- ? 

Which  ai'''  li^li;.'!'?      W'liirli  -h"d  wat''i'  more  readilv? 

W'iiat  ar.'  li\'''  ;_:.'i'-,'  f'-aliicrs?      What   is  ilow  n  ? 

Fi'"iii  what   part  of  thr  o- 1  rich  ai''-  |iIumi'S  takm  ? 

Do  "hird,-,  of  a  feath-r  lick  t.r^etlirr  "?      Why? 

IIa\i'  ail  ll-li'S  oil''  kind  of  coxi-i'Iiil;' ? 

Draw-  a  lidi--calr. 

What  animal-  livr  luiih  on  tic  land  and  in  the  water? 

Would  iiMt  -cal''s  make  a  iM'tl.T  co\ri'in'4-  than  fur  foi-  -rals? 

\\  hat  animal-  in'i'd  the  warim'-t  co\crim;? 

W  li'T''  wmild  \.ai  '.j-o  to  tlml  '^ikhI  f ur-1  leari ir^  animals? 

What  animals  sli''ii  til. 'ir  fiir>?      Wliy?      W'htii  Z 

W  liat  animal-  -h.'ii  I  heir  .-kin- ? 

\Vli.'n  do  Mrds  nioidi?      Wdiy? 

Do  o\,-n  -w.'iit  ?  do-.'.'' 

Do  insi'cts  iired  Warm  <'o\'i'rin'''s? 


114  THE   CHILD   AND   XATUUE. 

How  ai'e  the  i'(!et  and  knees  of  the  camel  protected?  the  eyes 
and  nostrils'? 

Compare  the  feet  of  the  o>lrich  and  camel. 

Do  animals  in  cold  c:onntries  have  daik  or  lij^hc  covei'ings? 

How  is  th'i  whale  ])rotected  from  the  icy  waters? 

Name  all  the  kinds  of  coverings  that  animals  have,  and  the 
parlienlar  nse  of  eai'h. 

What  animiils  sleep  during  the  winter? 

^Vhat  hirds  remain  witli  us  during  tlie  winter? 

Do  animals  migrate  to  esca]ie  cold  weather,  or  to  obtain  food? 

Where  are  the  frogs  and  snakes  dui'ing  the  winter? 

AVhy  do  bees  store  honey? 

"What  othei'  animals  store  food  for  winter  nse? 

]\refins  of  DiJ'i  nee.  — Th)w  do  the  i'oUowing  animals  defend  tliem- 
sclvesV  Snake,  cow,  horse,  dog,  bee,  cral),  bear,  deer,  mouse,  tly, 
goat,  turtle,  clejihant,  ostrich. 

Of  what  nsi'  is  color  to  animals? 

"What  nnimals  use  ]K)ison? 

^Vhy  is  il  diliicult  to  ealch  young  partridges? 

^\'h;ll  animals  defend  themseh'es  by  im^ans  of  s\\oi-ds  ?  saws? 
(inillsV 

Ibiw  does  the  squid  elude  ils  enemies  ? 

"Wheiv  do  young  alligaloi-s  go  as  soon  as  hidched?      ^Vhy? 

^Vlial  animals  depend  n[)on  s]ieed  for  safely? 

What  ones  hide?   change  coloi'?   feign  death? 

A\'li;d  ones  are  Jnuied  by  liunger?   by  U'nv  ? 

"Wiiy  do  l.<.a\-ers  dam  brooks? 

Whal  jilaii  ol'  e>c;i]ie  ha\e  tliey  fi'om  their  houses? 

How  many  eyes  has  1  he  lly? 

Wliat  aniniiils  liiive  l\een  scent?  sight?   hearing? 

Have  lldies  ears? 

How  do  hens  win-n  theii' chicks  of  dangei'? 

How  do  they  i.rotect,  tlieiii? 

Wlial  animals  follow  leadei-s  ?  ]iost  sentinels? 

How  do  little  -.piirrows  drive  olf  large  birds? 


AXIMJL^. 


l\r> 


Wliat  fi.-liPS  elude  their  [>iir.-U''i'-  l>y  I'^ajiiiii:^  ii;t<i  lii'-  air'.- 
What  liinl  defends  it.'^ell  by  kickiii-? 
\\"iiat  oni's  sei'k  to  eseapf  hy  (li\-iiiu'  and   -wiiiiin'ni^  ' 
Why  do  si'a-l)irds  lly  in  {\it;  trough  ui  tli<'  M-a  durinL;  ualrs? 
Wliat  birds  <trikf  witii  thi'ir  wind's  and  sj.urs/ 
W'ha.t  animals  ha\i'  bony  covi'rings  V 

Xanif  an  iMi'-niy  fd' •■acli  of  tlii/  fijllow  ini,'' :  In-n,  labbit.  lobin.  rat. 
cat,  di-fr.  fdt'phatit.  lly.  rattle>nakc,  lion,  nionlo-y. 

^['nii<  (if.  nml  Barrurs  !</.  hisj"  i\<al .  —  In  liow  many  way-  can 
birds  travtd  from  place  to  jilac-  y 

A\'liat  bii'ds  cannot  lly  'i 

What  animals  have  no  h-^s  V     How  do  ihcy  movr  abontV 

How  niiL,dit  animal-  livin;^  near  1  Ik-  >«'a  b''  carri'MJ  fai-  from  hom-? 

\Vliat  land  animals  can  ci'o-s  ri\cr,- '/ 

\\'hat  animals  ai'c  ot't'ai  blown  to  Liti-at  di-tancis  from  home? 

W  hat  onf<  cannot  swim  ''. 

Arc  froL;s  ever  found  in  salt-\'.atei'? 

\VhatanimaN  can  li\e  in  cold  coimtrie-  only? 

AVliat  one-  jive  in  dc-ert-?   fore-t  ?  on  niMnniaih- V   in  -wiiin]'-'.' 

Can  clam-  and  oy-Ier-  move  aboiii  ? 

Can  fre-h-w  at-i-  li-li  li\e  in  -ali-wat^n-  .' 

\\diy  cannot  a  robin  lly  around  tic-  ulobc  •.■' 

Will  tiirlles.  -eal-  and  fi'n,;.-  li\e  if  i<.-pr  <.ai  of  v,,it.-ra  'jr.-a1 
length  of  limi'  '.■' 

\Vhat  bii'd-  feed  iqion  ^i-ains'.^  Can  ihey  li\-e  in  \<-v\  coM 
cnimtrie-V 

Wh;it  do  -idcwoi'in-  f'-.-d  upon?      Wic-r"  onl\'  can  i!e'\    l:\-e? 

What  animal-  mu-t   live  neai'  bodies  ot    wal^r.' 

Whi'i-e  must  each  of  the  follouin.;  mak-  it-  liMn;.''.-  liea-.-i. 
duck,  SI  jinia'el.  hell,  d.'ep.  ]ioi--e,  lly,  be.'.  , -am' 'l.  .-eal.  eaule.  m.  -.piiii .. 

^Vllat  wild  aidnials  prey  on  -he^p  ?  d.ei?    rabbjH  ? 

Can  bi-avers  and  otters  eross  mountains  aiid  de-.  i-  -  ? 

Why  cannot  monkeys  live  in  open  plains? 

What  animals  cannot  live  lomx  in  for'  sts? 

AMiat  ones  would  starve  if  -et  fr^e  in  cold  count  lie-V 


116  THE   CHILI)   ANT)   NATURE. 

Why  cannot  the  polar  bear  leave  the  cold  regions? 
What  animals  cannot  cross  broad  valleys  ? 
Wliat  ones  can  cross  oceans?  deserts  ? 

When  wi're  the  horse,  cow,  sheep  and  hen  first  brought  to  this 
country  V     IJy  whom  ? 

Uses  of  Antiiutl-i.  —  ^\'hat  animals  supply  food  to  man?  cloth- 
ing? shelter?   i'uel  ?  light?  medicine? 

What  parts  are  used  i'()r  eacli  ]")ii]'pose? 

^^'hat  animals  are  employed  as  txiasts  of  burden? 

Which  is  more  useful,  the  horse  or  the  cow  ? 

Does  leather  grow  ?     How  is  it  pre[>a,red  ? 

\\'hat  animals  yield  valuable  slcins? 

AVhat  ones  an;  kept  as  jiets  ? 

^Vhat  are  domestic  animals?     Name  four. 

^^'ilere  is  whaUsbone  obtained  ?  sperm  oil  ? 

What  uses  does  man  make  of  the  cow?  reindeer?  hen?  sheep? 
elephant?  horse?  dog?  camel?  rattlesiuike?  cat?  whale? 

What    articles   ai'e    nuide    fi'om    skins?    horns?    hoofs?    hair? 

fji-onjis  fur  Sp/riitl  /,(.<s(/iis.  —  (Jaf,  lion,  tiger;  dor/,  wolf,  liyena; 
//(>;-.sr,  zebra,  (luagga ;  (/,'■,  buffalo,  bison,  musk-ox,  yak,  zebu;  dcrr, 
cashmi'n'  goat,  elk,  ri'indeer,  idand,  gnu,  chamois;  //o(/,  tapir,  hip- 
popoiamus,  riiinoceros,  ek'jihant;  cniiid,  dromedary,  llama,  alpaca; 
various  apes  and  monkeys;  (int-cohr,  ai'uiadillo,  echidna;  o/)ossutn, 
kangaroo  ;  ijirdji'i: ;  nl/ii/a/or,  ci'ocodilc ;  oriiil/ujr/n/nrJuis  ;  bearer,  otter ; 
oslrir/i.  naudii,  a{)tcr\'x  ;  riii//e,  condor  ;  //nose,  swan,  flamingo;  i)liens- 
0)1/,  lyrc-bii'd,  bird-of-paradise  ;  boo.  jiython  ;  .vca/,  walrus  ;  trhole; 
ii)ocl.-(  reK  cod,  sahnoii  ;  eorols  and  sponges. 

It  will  be  readily  iub'rrcd  that  no  scientific  classification  is  at- 
teiiipicd  ill  the  above  list,  but  only  a  coinciiieiit  order  of  study. 

J'lipils  should  learn  at  least  t  ht^  cliai-acleristics  of  each  grou]i, 
and  becoiiii'  familiar  with  the  species  through  pictures,  stories, 
desci'iptioiis  e!c.  'Die  solar  camera  will  lie  found  an  excellent 
device  in  the  stuily  of  animals.  The  work  may  take  the  form  of 
or;il  ;iiid  written  laiujiiage  h.'ssons. 


OCCUrATWXs. 


11 


(IIAl'TKU    \II!. 

/>.~IV1AN. 
/.     (>V(  Ul'.Ll  1<)\S. 

Mvi;i;v  chilli  may  Ik-  \vd  lo  sec  the  iiccc-^sitv  I'oi'  woi'k.  liv 
callinii;  aUciitioii  to  the  iiuiiiucf  hi  which  I'ood  ami  clothiir^ 
arc  olitaiiicd  and  (ncpai'dl.  lie  will  readily  uinlcisiainl  thai 
\vc  must  build  hi)u->cs.  ohtaiu  fuel,  i)r()\ide  dct'ciice,  and  jh'o- 
cui'c  food;  that  wc  cannot  kcc[)  i:'ood  heallh  without  lahor 
which  earns  us  rest  and  sleep.  lie  may  also  ili<co\ci'  that  a 
man's  imme(iiatc  suiToundinu's  ofitai  detenninc  liis  occii|ia- 
tion.  The  I'ich  soil,  the  .>wift  stream,  the  mine  and  (|uaiiy, 
the  forest,  the  ocean,  all  suu'ii'est  what  lahor  he  shall  per- 
form. 

The  principle  of  di\i-<ion  of  lahoi'  IcadiiiLi.'  to  the  social  life 
of  man  is  e\'erywlicre  illustrated:  in  the  home,  on  the  play- 
li'round,  on  the  fai'in.  in  the  W(U'kshop.  anil  in  the  relation  i,\' 
each  occupation  to  all  others.  Its  \  ahic  uiav  he  cK-irly  -how  n 
by  tryinij;  to  ti'ace  a  foi'eiLi'n  pidihict  hack  to  in  nati\t'  -'ul.  l'\ 
even  naniinu'  the  variety  of  occupation-^  tli-ii  i-oinl.inr  1,1  iiriir_ 
it  to  oni'  honu's.  ^^'e  should  he  lo-t  in  the  ninzc.  In  \\i]< 
elcnientai'v  stc|t.  the  child  should  -lud\  iIh'  work  nf  the  r.Mrai, 
shop,  mine,  forest,  sea  etc.  .and  disro\ci'  liie  -iinple  rel.itioiis 
of  tile  kind  of  labor  to  the  pi'oduct  ion-,  dl'  the  ~.in  inuiidiii- 
districts. 


118  THE   CHILD  AND   NATURE. 

V.     COMMEIWE. 

It  is  but  a  step  from  production  to  exchange,  —  fi  natural 
outgrowth  of  division  of  hibor.  The  work  under  this  head 
may  centre  in  tlie  study  of  means  of  transportation  and  routes 
of  trade  ;  e.g.,  tlie  railroad,  steamship,  river,  canal  and  cara- 
van. The  relative  cost  of  carrying,  the  speed,  safety  etc. 
may  be  discussed  in  a  simple  maimer.  The  grocery,  and 
nearest  city  to  which  produce  is  taken  to  exchange  for  other 
commodities,  ma}'  l)e  studied  as  types  of  centres  of  trade. 
l)isc(n-er  to  wliat  the  city  owes  its  growtli,  what  its  natural 
and  artilicial  advantages  are,  and  the  economy  of  using  it  as 
a  medium  of  exchange.  Study  also  the  means  of  transporta- 
tion to  and  from  it,  and  what  determines  the  route  of  eacli. 

;i.    UAcrs. 

The  highest  aim  in  the  study  of  man  should  ))e  to  develop 
a  love  for  our  fellow-beings.  If  we  would  make  a  child  nar- 
row in  his  sym|)athies  and  l)eliefs,  kec})  from  him  all  knowl- 
edge of  Ihe  modes  of  life  and  forms  of  worship  of  little 
children  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

If  we  would  have  our  children  grow  up  with  an  ever-))r()ad- 
ening  love  foi'  liunianity,  bolli  at  home  and  abroad,  we  should 
eaily  lead  tiicm  to  think  of  self  as  Ix'longing  to  a  gi'eat 
lu'othi'iliood  of  families.  They  should  l)e  told  that  they  have 
little  IViciids  living  in  cold  countries,  weai'ing  only  the  skins 
of  animals  for  clothing,  feeiling  on  the  flesh  and  blubber  of 
the  seal.  liaAiiig  few  if  any  pretty  playthings,  no  fruits  nor 
\egetables,  no  pleasant  schools,  and  where  tlu'  sun  is  some- 
times not  seen  b)i'  many  weeks. 

They  should  leaiii  how  these  little  children  spend  their 
long   da\>    aihl    nights,    what    kind   of    homi'    tliev  dwell    in. 


II  ACES. 


ll'.t 


how  tlu'V  arc  ki'i>t  warm,  how  ihnr  pMiriiU  uiiiniii  i'om.I  au.i 
clolhiiiLi'. — hi  short,  how  the  lives  n\'  ihfii'  \\ii\i-  l-",-.i[iiin,:iii 
fririnis  (lilYer  tVoiii  Ihcirowii.  To  l.imw  mi'l  Im  ihhik  of  thc-f 
little  |ieo[)U'  is  to  learn  to  love  llieiu  :  for  the  prettv  llown- 
••  for;j,'et-iiii'-not  '"  syiiiliolizcs  one  ot'  the  niosi  lieautifiil  '-dh- 
ilitions  ill  the  ciiltui'e  of  the  reeliiiL;s. 

I'lijiils  shoiilil  lie  taim'hl  to  share  their  uil'N  ami  pretty 
ilavthiiiLis.  first  with  their  [)oorer  [ilayiiiate>.  ;iiiil  then  when 
ios>ilile  with  little  [leojile  of  olhta'  eollllt  ries  ;  lo>enil  IniXr^ 
>f  useful  ainl  pretty  Ihiiiu's  lun'li'  b;i  llwiiisii ,-,  s  \n  t!ie  liulian 
•hihlreii.  oi'  excn  aei'oss  tlie  -i-a  to  iiiissinii  >clioo!<.  Diiriie^- 
lie  >piiim'  anil  sninnier.  thev  may  Leather  llo\\(!>  fdp  the  lin-pj- 
als  ami  eity  sehonls.  ami  in  the  autumn  >enil  fruits  id  ^nme 
ioeietv  e;irin'J,'  for  the  [loor  ehiMreii  of  a  iieiuh'iorinu  eil\-. 

Chihlren  ileliiiiii  im)--1  to  stmly  siieh  |)eo[ile  a--  the 
•Isipiimaux.  Ilotleinots  airt  l-"ueLi;in^  who  >ho\v  l>ul  iitlle 
iroLire^-^  alioN'e  the  lower  animaU.  Thev  can  ea-il\'  pieinre 
he  life  of  tlie  savau'e  ill  its  details.  Mini  can  e\en  repiMilnei' 
he  [ilain  liul  an-1  ruile  wea[)ons.  There  i-  a  Imiid  di'  -\ai- 
tathy  lietween  the  [)riniitive  raee  aiid  the  linle   child.  U>y  diie 

s  liut  the  relleetiiin  of  tile  >imple  life  ,,f  t!ie  ,,;1m.|'.  j;;ir- 
lari^ni  i>  tlie  ehiMliood  of  eiiliuhleiiment .  and  the  -a\a_;e  i- 
he  child-man. 

And  --o  our  childr(ai.  hv  niean-<  ol'  pietnie-  and  -tnri.--. 
ihoiiM  \  i-it  the  homes  of  all  (  la---es.  -— >!iould  iVolie  \vi:ii 
he  ••  watiu'-liahies."  pla\'  in  the  >and  wil'i  the  ••  ciiiM  nf  ihe 
lc>ert.""  >win'^"  in  the  deep  Wdndeii  eradle  witli  tiie  ■■  Lapland 
laliy.""  >[)iii  alonu'  the  iee-lield>  with  the  little  ■•  Areije  -hi." 
earn  to  make  and  use  the  how  and  arr"\v  ni  Mdw-^en  wiiii 
lie  ■•  Indian  hoy."  Sturie-.  pieture-.  -peeian-n--.  aed  ..ther 
nateriaU  should  he  u>ed  to  niaiki  e\ei\  tiiiirj:"  a-  o-al  a- 
loss  il  lie. 


120  THE   CHILD   AND    NATUliE. 

The  [)ui)ils  may  tlieii  l)e  led  to  coinpaie  Ihe  various  raees 
as  to  form,  size,  features,  color,  hair  etc.,  and  thus  he  })re- 
pared  to  distril)ute  them  (in  the  advanced  work),  by  more 
than  mere  names,  over  the  globe. 

-/.    j:i:  Lie  loss. 

'J'his  may  be  made  one  of  ihe  most  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive subjects  in  the  wiiole  course.  What  child  does  not 
delight  to  hear  rei)eated  the  ])eautiful  myths  of  Cinderella 
the  dawn-maiden,  .lack  and  (iill  carried  away  by  the  moon, 
or  Thor  witii  his  wonderful  hammer,  and  to  learn  in  how 
many  forms  these  stories  have  been  told  to  little  children  of 
other  lands?  And  as  they  advance  in  years,  with  v*hat 
interest  they  read  of  the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts,  Llie 
adventures  of  I'lysses  aftei'  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  founding 
of  Home,  and  other  stories  which  clearly  indicate  the  l)eliefs 
of  the  ancient  (irec^ks  and  Ivomans  !  Then  the  very  m^ys- 
tery  of  the  iNIagi  fascinates,  as  they  listen  to  the  incantations 
around  the  saci-ed  hres  on  tlie  hilltops  of  Persia.  How 
strange  to  them  appear  the  awful  tortures  lo  which  the  one- 
sided religion  of  the  Brahmins  led  I  but  how  they  learn  to 
admire  the  noble  young  ])i'ince  Ibiddha,  denving  himsi'lf 
every  pleasin-e  to  li\-e  in  the  soHliid(^  of  his  cave,  tliat  he 
might  discover  the  trulli  and  help  liis  fellow-beings. 

\\y  menus  of  such  stories,  we  not  only  excite  ui-eat  in- 
terest in  the  study  of  ancient  peoples,  ami  so  cultivate  a 
taste  b)r  historical  I'eading  and  books  of  ti';i\el,  but  also  lay 
the  basis  for  the  later  stiidv  of   the  pi-iiicip;d  icliLiions. 

The  woi'k  should  be  \'ery  e'ementarv.  and  mav  take  the 
form  of  stoi'ies.  \\'hen  the  little  folks  are  weai"\'.  or  when 
tln'  teacher  feels  a  little  ••  cro>s."  just  stop  and  i'el;itc  one 
of   these    beautiful    myths,  oi'   desci'ibe   s(.)nie    ((Ueer    customs. 


r;ori:n\Mi:.\T<. 


121 


;ni(l  111  the  sunshiiu'  of  iiitci'fst  into  the-  ^>cliiioliu(Hii.  How 
iiu[)oil;iiit  it  is  tlint  all  t.-achei's  :-lioul(l  l>r  <j:n(u\  -tMiA-trllris  ! 
and  no  sn'iject  affords  Ix'tttT  oiiiiorttniity  to  iK-\i'l(.)[)  this 
[lower  than  stories  of  l!ie  ancient  i^ods  and  luades. 

^\dle!l  pupils  enter  the  liiu'her  iirades.  they  >lii'iild  eimliiiue 
the  same'  line  of  work,  till  tliey  ai'e  ready  to  study  the  di-- 
trihutiou  of  reliuions  o\'er  the  ule)ln'. 


.-,.     (;<>\  I.IiSMEMS. 

\o  siteit'ty  can  exist  without  <i()\-erninent.  whether  it  I'e  on 
the  lialldieM.  the  d'oipiet-Liround.  in  the  home,  schnni.  wurk- 
shoj)  or  state  :  and  in  each  of  these  as-oeiation-.  \ve  may 
easily  discern,  not  only  all  tlie  de[iartment~>  e><enti:il  to  unod 
U'overninent.  l)ut  also  the  various  ty[)e>  or  forms.  It  i~~  an 
excellent  [)ra<-tiee  to  lead  [)upil>  to  analyze  their  limhics.  to 
discover  who  makes  the  rules.  \vli<.»  decides  ipiolions  ol 
dispute,  and  who  exeiaites  juduineiits  :  al>o  In  trace  the>e 
departments  throuij.!!  tlie  home,  school  i  te. 

The  study  of  special  types  may  then  felldw.  lie-iimin-' 
with  the  sim|)lest  recoiz-nized  form.  llie  ti'il>al.  and  coir-ider- 
iim-  successively  the  ahsohite  and  eon-titutiniial  monarchies. 
and  tlie  re|)n!ili<-.  'I'lie  princiicd  aim  >h'iuld  he  to  seriire 
interest  in  the  study,  and  then  teach  the  e-^entials  of  the  dif- 
ferent forms.  I'lipils  sJHiuM  al>o  learn  in  wliat  manner  their 
town  oi-  city  oflicials  are  elected  or  aji[Kjinted.  and  what 
authority  they  exercise. 

SIM M  \  i;v. 

We  have  now  reached  tlif  >taLic  towai'd  whirli  al'  "ur  pre- 
vious work  has  tended.  Ail  tliat  ha^  -one  hcfoi-'  has  h-,-n 
in  pi-eparati'>n  for  the  step  beyond  Llie  Umiis  of  >.  nM--pere.|i- 
titHi  into  tlie  realm  ol'   pure  imagination.      '1  he  a['paiv!it  si/.c 


122  rilK   (JllILJ)    AND   NATURE. 

1'onn  iiiul  motions  of  the  enrtli  are  iiuw  t(j  he  resc^lved  into 
a  vast  g'lol)e,  rotating  and  revolving  in  tlio  solar  system. 
From  the  hills  and  valleys  of  our  district,  we  are  to  build  in 
imaiiiiiatiou  tiie  great  plateaus  and  ri\'er-l»asins  of  the  globe. 
Our  little  brook,  witli  its  load  of  I'ieh  silt,  has  already  shown 
us  how  the  earth's  great  garden-s[)ots  have  been  maale.  Tiie 
same  laws  that  moved  the  air  in  our  schoolroom,  and  over  our 
little  pond  and  sandv  Held,  ai'e  now  to  girdle  the  globe  with 
its  great  wind-lielts.  ()l)eying  I  he  same  laws  that  have  regu- 
lated the  growth  of  the  plants  in  our  little  garden  or  boxi'S, 
the  surface  is  to  l>e  clotlied  witli  vegetation. 

Then  we  are  to  see  strange  peoi)le,  — not  strangers  either, 
foi'  ]ia\'e  we  not  ali'ead\'  \'isite(l  the  homes  of  all  classes? 
r>iit  now  we  are  to  study  them,  not  as  indi\iduals,  but  in 
great  /-(/(v.s  and  nnUnns.  Wonderful  will  be  our  journey, 
but  the  amount  of  ])rolit  and  pleasure  we  shall  derive  fron)  it 
will  de[)end  lai'gely  u[)on  the  thoroughness  of  the  study  of 
our  district ;  for  only  as  we  have  accpiired  elementary  ideas 
of  geogi'aphical  forms,  forces  and  conditions,  sliall  we  be 
enal>led  to  imagine^  them  on  the  gi'ander  scale  on  which  our 
bcaiitirul  planet  is  eonstruiled. 


CLnl'.i:    i>U    co.X  J  IM.W  r 


12:1 


PART   II. 


(  IIAl'lKK    !X. 

GLOBE   OR    CONTINENT      WHICH    FIRST? 

\\'iiii  ()Ui-  [ircsfiil  liinitrd  kiiowlcilLic  ol'  tin-  l:i\\.^  wliicli 
L:(>\riii  tilt'  fK'\  ;Ltiii!i  auil  (U'lircs-idii  ol'  uir:il  \:u\<\  !ii:i--r-. 
wlictiici' sucli  aclidU  results  I'lDin  un«'i|U;il  niilinl  c  ini  inri  ji  m. 
llcxioiis  of  ;iii  outfi'  criisl.  latcia!  crusliiiiLi,'  an  1  I'dMiiiuor  an 
nutcr  to  lit  an  inner  cooIuili'  ina-.-.  weakening  o!'  a  eiu-i  l.\ 
seilinientai'V  (le[)o>i1s  aihl  eon--ei|iienl  \'iel'!inLi'  io  In  n'i/.onta  1 
|i;i'^>,ui'e.  Ol  froni  an  y  o1  her  eau-es  vel  to  Ik-  t  li-i'o\  i|  ril.  n^i 
teaellel'  Would  1  te  ju^iilieii  ill  the  altellljiL  to  lead  pujiils  ti> 
>tll<lv  tlie  I'eliel'  tlll'olluh  .■IIIV  or  all  of  ihevf  ihrorir-.  In  ihf 
li'illt     of    l>re>ellt     vciclltilie    k  liou  lei  li^e.    the    ivlirl'    of    llie    mii- 

tiiieiits  must  he  /<,!il  as  fact  :  and  tin'  aMIity  of  impiU  b- 
imagine  tlie^e  un^ecu  form-  mn-l  di-i'iaid  iirimariK"  ujiiiii  ih'- 
a>>oeialion  of  words.  modcU  or  other  si'jn-  wilh.  tlie  nin- 
eepls  of   the  eorres|iondin'_:'  torm>  in  tinar  di-Irii'i. 

Al  the  \-ery  outset  tiiauv  roads  ojhh  ln-fure  n-.  <  tiie  !ea  i- 
from  our  immediate  surroiindin'j-  to  our  inw  n.  a  no  ihii.  ii' 
an  evei'-widtaiiiiLi'  eirele.  to  mir  eonnt\.  -t:iti  .  iinmliN.  inM  - 
lieut  and  uh'he  ;    a  second,  from  oiir  d i-l  i  i't  n  >  t he  .-.  .1,1  iiuaiK. 


124  THE  aniLi)  and  nature. 

and  tlieiice,  after  .stiulyini!,'  the  globe,  l)ack  to  our  country, 
state  etc.  ;  a  third,  tVom  our  district  directly  to  the  glol)e, 
thence  to  tjie  continents,  ccnnitries  etc.  The  lirst  of  these 
plans,  which  is  an  outgi'owth  of  a  system  that  leads  pupils 
to  view  the  earth's  surfai-e  merely  as  a  succession  of  [)olitical 
divisions,  must  surely  give  \vay  to  a  moi-e  rational  system, 
based  u[)on  the  study  of  natural  di\isions  of  the  surface. 
A\'hei'e  the  sludy  of  geography  consists  in  merely  memorizing 
political  boundaries,  capitals,  exjjorts  and  imports,  races  of 
men  etc.,  the  circle  plan  may  answer  its  i)ui'pose  I'airly  well  ; 
l)ut  with  the  introduction  of  /Kihiral  geogi'aphy  must  arise  a 
new  course  of  study,  based  U[i<)n  tin-  natural  regions  to  be 
studied,  an<l  irlwre  nurst  mala'  room  for  ?c////. 

Thus,  if  we  would  know  vliij  a  ct'rt:iin  section  or  state 
yields  cotton,  sugar-cnne  or  gi':iiu,  we  must  lirst  know  not 
only  tlic>  length  of  its  wai'm  season  and  the  prevailing  winds, 
but  :dso  its  [)osition  within  its  continent,  the  general  relief 
of  that  continent,  and  its  positi(jn  rehdive  to  the  others,  in 
oi'der  th:it  we  m;iy  judge  its  rainfall,  climate  and  soil.  Only 
l)y  the  study  of  the  I'elations  of  tlic  great  features  of  relief  to 
the  winds  and  waters  of  the  globe,  can  we  reason  to  the  life 
of  :!  continent,  countiy  oi' state  :  thei'cfoi'c  any  system  which 
lends  from  the  district  on  the  cii-cle  [)lan  must  necessitale 
h'lliiifj  i-;itliei'  tli.-in  h  iirjii mj.  or  le;iding  to  reason.  No  stnte 
or  country  owes  its  \'egetMbIc  or  iinimal  life  to  its  own  sti'uct- 
ure  alone,  but  to  the  I'elation  of  its  surfiice  to  the  whole 
globe   in   position   and  relief. 

The  (piestion  is  therefoi'c  mirrowed  to  this:  fn  going  out 
froin  our  disti'iet.  shall  we  study  the  ijlnha  or  tJtc  coiiJiacut 
first ! 

We  ai'c  apt  to  l)e  inislei]  tiy  the  |ii'iiiciple  that  "  We  must 
study  fr(;m  wholes  to  [)a)1s."      T(  achcrs  often  reason  as   fol- 


CT.oilK   ni;    ro.YV  /  \/;.vy 


IJ.i 


lows:  ••  'I'hc  ololi,.  i\  till'  wliolc.  flirrrt'ort'  >!iitlv  it  lii-t.  -juA 
afterwards  llu>  coutinfiiN.  ruimtiies  etc.""  Tlir  ciinr  lir^  in 
tlu'  miscdiicTiitiou  (if  the  iiU'aninL;' nf  unitv.  An  :i|'|ili'  i-  n- 
truly  a  whuK-  ns  ilu-  tree  u|miii  whi.-ii  it  ui'i'W  :  :i  liill  i-  :, 
wIidK'.  Vft  ill  tiir  aiialv-is  df  ;i  laii'l-caiic.  wr  -lnnil'l  i-,  .ii-i(  id 
liills  ;is  jiart-^  :  ri\  rr-li:;-iii>  arc  wlidlcs.  nltliuiiL;]!  iiianx'  i<\ 
'JH'iii  may  roii-titiitt'  a  cMiiiiiii'iit  :  lii<rwi>('  a  i-i.ni  imiit  it  n 
'ijiilir  is  a  wliolr.  altlioiiuii  coiitiiit'iit-  are  lait  [lait-  iif  a  -Ih't. 
aii'l  iilolu's  arc  luit  [lai'ls  of  a  iiiii\iT-t'.  In  slmrt.  aii\  tiiiii- 
lu'jil  ill  (•(iii--citiu--iir-s  fi.i'  aiialy-is  is  -a  wlmlt'.  'I'liciv  i-.  lluai. 
ill  this  ))riiiri[ilr.  IK)  reason   f,)i'    teaciiinu-   taljirr    tiir   liiniir    (ir 

rolltilli'llt    lil'>t. 

(  )ii  tlir  (itlit'r  liaii'i.  tlir  ai'Li'iinn'iit  i-  nftvii  i:-.-.!.  ijiat  tiir 
iiiiml  can  apia-clifiKl  a  wlinlc  diily  liv  a  iirn.-c--  ^f  -\  i,i  liiii/- 
iiii;'  :  i.e..  tliat  a  pci'-^uii  iiiu-~t  prri-riN  c  ila-  pari-  Nrldic  ii''  ran 
(•(>ni-fi\-c  tilt-  whcijc.  l-'iMni  tliis.  (Ill,'  cla--  a-Ix-iratr  tlif 
tcai-liini;-  ,ii  cirrjc  Li.'iii^-i'aiiliv  :  aiid  aip'tiirr.  I!;!-  -iU'I\-  i>;'  i-c- 
latcil  cMmiiicnis.  lo  cnaMc  [tuiiil-  tlic  iiku'c  rraiiiU"  In  i:iia'jinr 
the  l;I"'m'.  Let  uv  lM,,k  a  iiltlr  faitlna-  in  tiic  -aiiic  .  liivri  i.  m. 
Tlic  >ui't'acc  iif  a  cniitinrnt  i>  ccinii" '--rd  nl'  ri\fr-l  la-iii- ; 
tiii'i-ct'iii'i'.  til  ill'  CI  ni-i-triit .  wc  nai-i  -ImiIn-  carii  i  m'  ihrs.' 
licfurc  -tmlyiirj.'  tlic  wiinjc  cdiilincnt.  It  ci.ji-;-;-  i.i'xcwi-c  dl' 
plateaus,  iniuiiitains.  ranges,  \allc\-.  -Idp,-,  etc.:  anit  ii' 
such  i-ca-nniii'j."  lie  ti",;c.  we  >l!duli|  -.inii\-  ti.e  cain-  i.pii 
arraii^i-ciiitail--  ol'  all  tlic-c  part-  licl'die  li\;nu  '"  '-iva-p  ;•.■■ 
■general  relief  nf  the  whulc.  'I'lic  ai-inneni  ]\i\\~-  ,l>-.d'\e- 
in  inlinity.  The  crrnr  i-  in  faiiine'  to  ■  li-t  iiijui-' i  i^iw.,  i 
thccdiiscidiK  aii'l  nnedn-cidii-  mental  pidee-. — .  True.  li,,' 
miinl  syntheti/.cs  in  C' v^niziiiu  whulc-^  :  'ui!  tiie  la-i  pide,  --,  ,.\' 
synthesis  is  an  iniedn-,cidu-  niie.  and  -h'aiid  n  iniin  -^  i:ii;,l 
the  whole  as  -uch  is  llrnil\  tl\e.|  in  mind.  1  i  '!:.  mhI  ii"'  !;ll 
then,  slionld  the  child   lie  niadc  cdn-ei,,ii^  ,.\'  ihe  p:  :;^ 


120  THE   CHILD   AND   XATURE. 

TIk'  application  of  this  pi'inciple  has  given  rise  to  the 
•'word"  and  ''sentence"  methods  of  teacliing  readinji". 
The  former  considers  the  idi'a  as  tlie  unit,  tmd  teaches  its 
coi'respon.dini^'  siuii.  the  word  ;  wliih'  the  latter  reu'ards  the 
thonu'ht  as  the  im[)orlant  wIkjIc.  ;ind  so  ])res(>nts  the  entire 
sentence.  —  leaving  to  the  natural  action  of  the  cliild's  mind 
the  imconscious  syntlietizing,  in  the  fornn'i-.  of  tlie  letters 
in  the  word,  and  in  tlie  latter,  of  tlie  words  in  tht'  sentence. 
As  soon  as  tlie  wholes  are  firmly  llxed.  the  phonetic  drill,  and 
conscious  analysis  int(_)  letters  and  words  :ire  consistently 
heguil. 

The  same  principle  underlies  the  de\'ice  of  training  [tiipils 
to  count  liy  threes  and  fours,  i.e..  to  judge  a  niiiiihcr  at  a 
ghiiice.  without  slopping  to  count  consciously  liy  ones.  Far 
from  supporting  tiie  pi'actice  of  te;iching  the  continents  as  a 
[ireparation  foi'  the  globe  study,  it  directly  o[)|)()ses  it. 

.And  yet.  before  a  child  can  distinctly  iiantjiiie  a  new 
whole,  he  must  ha\'e  gnined  clear  concepts  of  the  (>]emeiitarv 
fni'ins  which  constitute  that  whole.  liut  llie  sludvof  these 
eleiiieiilary  forms  in  the  various  relations  in  which  tliev 
appear  as  pai'ts  ol'  the  whole  is  not  essentia],  nor  does  it  aid 
in  tlic  imagiiiatiou  of  the  wli(»le:  in  fact,  as  has  l)cen  alreadv 
staled,  such  study.  h<'fo|-e  tlie  whole  has  liecn  liimlv  fixed, 
tends  to  prc\ent  the  mind  from  graspiim'  the  niiifv  whicii 
should  become  the  basis  of   analvsis  of   relations  later. 

l''or  cxainple.  the  land  surface  is  made  of  slopes,  gradual 
and  abrupt,  loici  and  shoii.  some  limilinu'  hill  forms  or 
ele\atioiis.  oljiers  \alley  form--  or  depressions.  All  differ- 
elii'cs  in  relief  belweeii  llie  L:iobe.  eonl  ii  leiil  s,  plateaus  and 
ri\ cr-basiiis.  result  from  the  arraugeiueiil  of  slopes;  and 
when  the  pupils  ha\'e  clear  concepts  of  the  \arious  kinds 
and  relations  of   slo|ies  in    their  disi  riet .  and    have   assoeialecj 


(;l(>i:i:  on  '  o.vv/ \/;.v/' 


^■2'i 


wiili  t-acll  ('()lic(']it  its  ;iplil'ii[)l'i;ll('  liaiilt'  or  sIliii.  tin"-  ;irc 
tiu'll  [>i'('paiT(l  to  lif  Icil  lo  iiiiMLiiiir  anv  wliolc  <-iiiii|m  i-id 
of  similar  slo|ics.  whctlirr  it  In-  a  i  i\  la-Ka-iii.  ciiil  iiiinl 
oi'  ^lolu'.  with,  a  (•k'ani('>--;  projioitionali'  to  tlir  ^iiupiirii  v 
or  coiiipJL'xity  ('{'  arranLiciiiciit  ol'  sloju's  in  ilic  saiioiis 
wlioK's. 

'I'lic  fact  that  cta'taiii  s|o[)('s  of  the  ;j.lolu'  ai'r  so  iclatnl  as 
to  I'oi'in  what  ai\'  tcniu'd  ••  coiitiihails." "  ^\^)^■^  not  iucc--ilalf 
any  <tiiily  of  tlicsc  indix'iihial  lainl  nias-cs  iin'\ioii>ly  to 
stmlvinLi'  the 'jlohc  as  a  wliolc.  any  n'oif  th.an  tlic  f:irt  that 
certain  slo|)cs  within  a  continent  foi'ni  ri\  ('r-li:i^in->  rciniias 
ncccssaiy  tlic  stndy  of  thcs(>  isolated  liasins  in  prepaiation 
for  lessons  on  the  continents.  Shijips.  not  coiitiiienls.  <//■,' 
(I/c  II nils  of  relief  of  tlir  ijlnhr  us  in-il  ,/.s  ',/'  i's  /,'ir's.  The 
order  of  study  onulit.  therefore,  to  coirespond  with  the  ordrr 
of  siin[ilicitv  in  an'anueiiienl  of   slopes. 

In  home  ^eo^rapliy  the  (jucslion.  ■•  Willi  whieji  form  shall 
we  iicuin'r"  was  not  of  sueh  moment,  as  nil  llie  wholes  in 
the  dislrict  stndv  were  whoU'S  of  perception.  iWil  in  1  he 
ad\aneed  or  continent,  work,  as  we  are  to  stndv  iind  anaK/.e 
wholes  of  ima'jinat  ion.  it  is  df  the  ntmnst  importance  lii:it 
wc  he^in  with  thai  whole  which  is  siiiiplf-,t  :  i.e..  in  whii-li 
the  parts  we  wish  to  slndvai'c  nio-l  --impK  rrlaled.  Ar.-u- 
rate  analysis  of  an  unseen  foi'in  nree^-.itat  e--  lirin'_:in.:  il 
\i\idlv  info  consei(  lu^iicss  li\   the  aid  of   iIh'  imauiiial  ion. 

W'c  sliouM  also  keep  in  miml  that  \vlnii  an  oliiei-i  i>  pie- 
sentc(l  forstudv.  we  should  lead  I  he  pupiU  |o  uli-eixi'  -ia!i 
facts  mi/i/  coneerniiiLl'  it  :is  will  hiv  Ihe  li;i-is  \\,i  riiiin.'  -liid\ 
l''i"om  the  quanies  of  nalui'c  wi-  -rled  ihe  -mcii-.  wiih  which 
we  ai'i'  to  liuild.  'I'l'ne.  we  m;iv  oficn  rijfci  ihe  ••  k.'\-nM;i'  : 
hut  that  is  due  ralhei-lo  oui'UMrrcw  ideal  llun  lo  :i  \\  I'oU'j,' 
[)rinei|ile.      Tims  I  he  lir-t    study  of    Ihr    -lohe    ,ir    :i    .ontiiii'Ml 


128  THE   CHILI)   AND    NATUUE. 

should  include  such  features  and  relations  only  as  are 
essential  to  a  liigher  step. 

Befoi'e  li'oing  out,  then,  from  our  district  to  study  the 
unseen,  or  liefore  going  from  wholes  of  percei)lion  to  a  whole 
of  imagiiuvtion,  we  must  satisfy  ourselves  as  to  which  of  the 
two  forms,  the  glol)e  or  tlie  contincni,  is  sim[)lest  in  general 
relief,  and  which  contains  the  relations  of  foi'm  and  force 
which  we  wish  to  study  as  a  l)asis  for  huilding  higher.  To 
do  this  we  nuist  examine  l)oth  I'orms.  'Jdie  whole  question 
hinges  on  how  much  of  detail  nuist  enter  into  the  study. 
In  l)oth  cases  we  will  limit  oursi'h'cs  to  tlie  features  of  relief 
which,  wlicn  related  to  the  winds,  determine  the  general 
I'ainfall,  —  the  hrst  step  l)eyoud  tln'  study'of  I'elief. 

As  we  have  already  ohserved.  tlie  great  glohi'  water- 
parting,  or  line  of  })lateaus  from  ('a|)e  Horn  to  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  is  so  placed  across  the  wind-belts  as  to  admit 
the  moist  winds  to  the  great  slo[)es  of  the  world  ;  and  it  is 
only  by  the  study  of  the  I'clation  of  the  whole  of  this  great 
and  continuous  highland  to  the  zones  of  winds,  that  we  can 
determine  the  general  raini'all  and  di'ainage,  not  only  of  the 
wliole  globe.  Imt  also  of  encli  continent.  Thus  the  study  of 
the  geiienil  I'Mint'all  of  Africa  necessitates  a  knowledge  on 
the  pai1  of  the  pu^iil  of  the  inllui'nce  of  the  great  desert 
))lateaus  of  Asia  upon  the  Iraile-winds  of  the  Indian  ()t'ean, 
turning  them  into  monsoons,  enabling  the  plateau-continent 
of  Africa,  witii  its  gi-eat  tracts  of  heated  surlace,  to  causi' 
the  winds  of  the  Atlantic  to  turn  back  upon  their  course  and 
llow  in  n|ioii  its  gi'eat  slopes.  Again,  the  I'ainfall  of  I'an'ope 
can  1k'  s1iii|ie<l  onlv  in  the  light  of  the  inlhieuee  of  tlu;  loca- 
tion of  ('eiitral  AuH'rica  and  Mexico  upon  the  direction  of 
the  (iulf  Stream,  and  also  its  [io,>ition  ix'lati\'e  to  the  heated 
plateau  of   Africa. 


(ijjijiK  oil  '  <>.\'n .\ ::\"r 


The  li'fiiiT.-iI  i'aiiii';ill.  1  liiTrl'iirc.  df  cnim  \-  ri  int  iiirn; .  wiiil.- 
:ipli:uviitly  <lii'fct  iy  ili'ii'i-iiiiiii-ii  I'V  tin'  ii"-i'';i'ii  i>!'  i:-  i>\\i\ 
lirininrv  hiulilaiiil.  i-^  \c)'y  uicalU-  iikh  liiic.  1  1,\  ju  |i'.-iiii.ii 
ill  llic  whole  laml  ina^s  of  the  l;1o1u'.  In  fa'-t.  llii^  i-  o|,.'  of 
Uif  clcinriiW  of  unity  in  t!ic  irloln-  iTlirf.  thai  >  ai'ii  |.ail 
iiithu'nccs  the  rainfall,  an^l  ihi'onuli  il  the  lite  oj'  all  pari>  ot' 
the    'jlohe.        Rainfall     eainiol.     therefore,     he     >t!hiie(l     :i-,     the 

result  of  the  relation  of  a  eontineiit  or  i-,  .hit.'i  1  [iMrlion  ot' 
the  Lilolie  \vali'r-|iarlin_i'  to  tiie  moi-l  win' 1-i  m'Ii-.  hnt  oiil\- 
from  the  >lanil[Miint  of   iniity  ol'  the  ulohe  -triietin'e. 

3Ioreo\'ei'.  in  (leterniinini:'  the  nnrninl  ol'  iirneral  lainl'all. 
the  seeomlary  iiiLLhlanil>  phiN-  Iiut  a  -mail  [iarl.  A-  \vr  lia\e 
alreailv  oIi-.M'N  fij.  theV  enter  the  eoUtillelit  reliel'  to  in'ii- 
vidiialize  the-e  laiul  ma--e-  li\-  loeali/.inLi  rainfall,  uatlierinu 
the  water  iiilo  ha-in-.  ami  L;i\"inu'  -['e.-ial  ilireciion  to  lirain- 
au'e.  'I'heir  \alue  ile[)en'U.  tlu'refoi-e.  ahno-t  whoiK'  iipoii 
the  i)o>ition  of  the  primaiy  hiuhlano-.  which  niav  either 
ailmit  to  or  >hul  olT   from  tlpan  their  'va'm'  -:ii'i>!\. 

'i'he  plaee.  tht-n.  that  sn-on-iary  lii'jiilan' 1-  -lioiild  (m-imiji\ 
ill  a  >y-tein  or  eouise  of  >iirly  i-  in  that  paii  whii-h  li'eai- 
of  the  i|i\i>ion  of  continent-  into  i'i\-cr-l'a-in-.  an^i  ilo,>-  nui 
lieloiii;-  to  liic  -tU'ly  of  the  -enci'al  -h.hc  iciicf  in  it-  r.  !•■- 
lion  to  the  udaaa!  >  ii-t  ril  ml  ion  I't'  rainfall.  I'.ut  win'n  \\  c 
limit  i-ontiiicjit  -tu'l\-  to  a  -iniilc  ureal  \\  atcr-pa  1 1  in  j.  wi'ii 
a  lone-  ami  >hort  -lope,  we  nici'cK'  tc-idi  tic  -li.li,-  iciicf 
in  li\-e  -ectiiin-.  whii'h  camiot  he  I'da'cd  nniil  \'' .<•  -I.'!--  ;- 
inaile  the  lia-i-  ol'  relali\i'  |io-iii,in.  ainl  li!cn  only  ! 'y  c.'!;- 
seiou-  -yni  het  \/.\\\'S  ^^^   jiai'l-. 

While  the  clol>e  -tiriy  ncciU  liicrcf.nc  in,-lii'ic  lii.'  im.,'-:,,ii 
ami  eoiit  iiiiiit  V  of  the  'jrcat  In  ii'-c-ln  le  [lialcan  on!\.\'.:;ii  ii- 
lojiu'  <lo|ic  -ti'ctchinc'  a\\a\-  on  all  -i'lc-  i.i  the  Aiian'ic 
vallcw  aii'l  "it-  -hoit  oiic  .  Ir-ciai' iinu  lo  ihc  I'.-c-',:'.-.  i  he  conii- 


130  THE   CHILI)   A.\J)  NATrHE. 

nciit  study,  wliilo  neglecting  the  important  I'netor  of  unity, 
or,  at  most,  striving  to  attain  it  tln'ougli  a  process  of  con- 
scious synthetizing  directl}'  :it  variance  with  tlie  natural  mode 
of  action  of  the  mind  in  apprehending  relations,  would  also 
involve  the  study  of  secondary  highlands  and  river-basins  — 
details  of  relief  which  are  not  essential  to  the  consideration 
of  the  general  rainfall. 

Continents  ought  theri'fore  to  lie  studied  as  purls  of  the 
giol)e  structure,  a.nd  should  follow  tlie  study  of  the  earth's 
surface  in  its  unity,  first,  because  the  globe  is  the  siniplcsf 
whole,  and  second,  liecause  the  globe  study  alone  can  lead 
to  those  relations  to  heat,  winds  and  rainfall  which  enable 
the  pu[)il  to  take  the  next  step  in  the  science. 

AVhen  forms  are  to  l)e  studied  as  i)arts  of  a  whole,  their 
relative  positions  can  be  learned  from  tlie  wliol(>  itself  only, 
for  in  their  relations  tliey  constitute  the  whole.  These  rela- 
tions can  be  more  readily  disco\'ered  by  the  study  of  the 
whole  befoi'c  the  mind  is  conscious  of  the  parts.  The  great 
error,  it  appears,  has  liceii  in  burving  tlie  essentials  of  globe 
study  in  a,  mass  of  details  that  belong  to  the  later  work  with 
continents  and  i'ive!--b;isins.  It  is,  moi'eover,  dillicult  to 
understand  how  tli(>  continents  can  lie  related  successively 
to  each  other  in  the  ordei'  studied,  unless  the  globe  is  (ii'st 
made  the  b;isis  of  the  rehitixc  positions.  It  should  1)e 
remembered  that  by  the  study  of  the  globe  is  meant  iiere.  not 
the  study  of  the  mathematical  globe,  lnit  the  relief.  —  not 
motions,  circles,  latitude  and  longilude.  but  mei'ely  the 
arrangement  of  great  slopes. 

The  order  of  study,  it  would  seem,  ought  therel'ore  to  lead 
from  the  disti'iet  dii'ectly  to  the  globe,  ;ind  thence  to  the 
continents.  <'()untries.  states  etc..  in  their  Aarious  I'elations 
t<i    the    whole. 


.sAyjj  Mni)i:LiA.\i;. 


\.\\ 


(IIAl'lKK     X. 

SAND      MODELLING     IN     FOREIGN     GEOGRAPHY 

Jx  fit  lilflllniy  UVOLli'.'ipliy.  the  lilouMiir^'  >;ili'l  i--  li--cil  :i-  ;i 
ilfvicc  for  scciii'iiiLi-  nlti'iilioii  til  \  i>iMi'  r^iMi-  in  naluir.  In 
foreign  Lifiiur;i|il!_v.  it  i<  u-cil  n-  :i  l;uiuu;ii:r  "r  iiif:iii<  nt' 
r('c;il!inu'  •■"!icriit>  (if  laii'l  :iiiil  \v;itiT  lornr-,  in  tlic  new  rfl;i- 
li<in-,iii  whii-li  tlii-y  :i[nif;ir  n-  o  int  iinMit -.  In  the  r.uinfi'  it 
stiuiuliitc>  pri'd-iitiiiii  :  ill  tile  liiltcr.  ini;i'^in;il  ii  in.  .Mi  ircM)\  ci'. 
llif  ;ict  (if  luiHlrliiuL;' 'H'  iiiakin::  llic  i-dnt  iiicni--  iivtiic  |i|iiiii^ 
i>  the  lif-t  |Mi^-i!i!t'  incau-  ot'  i'i\-ctin_  tin-  iilli^nii'^n  t"  iln' 
rcl;lti(in>    nl'    -|ii[)t'S    wllirll    (Ictcl-niini-     \\\-'    liir    oT     tjir-.'    '_;lc:it 

l;inil-iii;i<-c-. 

'i'lic  ci'it  ii-i-ni  i^  1 1  ft  en  in;iil''  ;i'_;;iin-t  \\w  n-r  ol'  hk  "  l.'llin'.:.  t  li:it 
it  |)ict  urc^  1  ill-  cdiitincnt--  to  t  lie  diiM  ;i-  lufir  licMpv  ,  .t'  -;inil. 
lit'''li--~-  iii;i--c-.  V-AV  iVdni  I'l'lni;'  n  jn-t  i-rili'^i-in  nl'  ;!ii-  liri|it'nl 
ilcxiff.  it  inci'clv  >lu)\v-.  tiint  tliiKc  wlni  tlni-  niliii-.'  I'.-i';!  '" 
(li-rriniin:i1c  tlif  )'c;il  t'l  irni  I'mni  it-  l;iir_:n;iLii'.  \)^>r-^  t  lir  \\  m|  .1 
•■  llOl'vc  [ii-intiMl  in  |.ii-;i  type  iv.-ilj  :i  lihick  (I'.lon-  .■nr,ji;il 
aliiint  liair  an  inrji  in  l(ar_;tli.  an^l  a  -ixl.'cntli  ni'  :iii  n.^ii  :n 
lici'^iit  r  Ni'ithcr  'liic-  t  hf  iniin!'ii''l  I'lain  lii-iia'i  or  n;  :-!.■:.■  i  : 
for  n-dl.  nut  in  tin'  plarr  oi'  n.-iiniv.  Lin  a-  liii'  Ian-:;:..:'-  '•' 
that  wliidi  i-<  l.rantil'nl  anil  'jianM  in  i'\\\  'li-iiii-I.  1:  '■  'a.^'lil- 
staiiil  I'lirtli  tJM'  \i  r\'  iia-a  i  nat  ii  .n  in  iai-ijina  i  >  ai  ■•!'  tii''  t'ani- 
and  lil'c  of  tlir  nii^rm  woild.  Wm.!-  in  t!p  ;i:-'  i'v.  -  aiv  ii.,-mi 
till  I>arkrd  liv  li\  ill--  and  I  a. -a  1 1 1  i  ir^  1 1 1-; ;  _  I  a -.  :  liirs  lii^  n  li.  i-iaii. 


132  THE   CHILI)   AND   NATURE. 

the  embodiment  of  life.  S3'ml)ols  are  at  best  but  arbitrary 
signs ;  and  tlie  most  perfect  are  tliose  wliieli,  like  sand 
models,  suggest  the  concrete  by  their  forms. 

liefore  condemning  the  device,  a  teacher  should  consider 
carefully  these  (juestions  :  Are  tiie  lillh'  moulded  forms  used 
as  svDibols  of  greatei'  forms  in  nature?  J)o  they  rec((U 
actual  foi'ins  of  laud  and  water?  Ai'C  we  tr^dng  to  lead  the 
pupils  to  imagine  tl;e  continents  in  the  sand  or  through  it? 
Are  they  studying  men'  signs,  or  are  they  viewing  the  realit\' 
l)eyond  ?  Are  we  making  a  stutly  of  the  glass  in  the  tele- 
scope, or  are  we  using  it  as  a  means  of  looking  far  out  into 
the  universe?  Ai'e  we  using  the  sand  to  teach  new  forms  in 
different  pai'ts  of  the  world,  or  merely  to  show  the  relative 
positions  of  features  already  known  in  nature,  and  which  no 
symbol  can  distort? 

And  yet  the  claim  is  justly  made,  that  the  (inal  mental 
pictuix's  of  the  continents  are  diminutive,  and  that  the  pi'o- 
l)ortiou  of  altitude  to  horizontal  extension  is  exaguerated. 
No  statement  can  be  truer,  but  it  sei'vcs  mci'cly  to  indicate  a 
lack  of  thought  on  the  jiart  of  those  who  offiM-  this  as  an 
objeeliou  to  (ln>  device.  Are  they  not  aware  that  it  is  not 
within  the  powt'r  of  mortals  to  grasp  a  stretch  of  three  thou- 
sand miles.  Mild  plact;  on  it  n  slo[)e  one  thousand  miles  lonu'. 
and  only  eiglil  hiindred  fvvt  in  its  gi'eatest  elewatiou  ;  that 
neither  sight  nor  touch  eonld  detect  such  a  slo[)e  if  a  reduced 
scale  could  bring  the  iimilations  of  the  coiiliiieiit  within  the 
range  of  \'isioii.  and  vet  preserve  the  true  relation  of  height 
to  lireadth  ;  that,  there  ne\-ei'  has  been,  and  never  can  l)e,  a 
)iiap,  pictui'c  or  model  made  that:  will  make  perceptihlc  to 
either  sight  o|-  touch,  even  the  true  general  buni  of 'the  sur- 
face of  a  continent  ;  that  such  a  [)iet,ure  can  ne\'er  lie  even 
imagined  in  true  proportion  ? 


SAND   M01)[-:LLL\(, 


Altho'.iu!'.  it  is  luj  arii'uincnt,  it  mny  lu;  >ii-'j.i'-!i\  c  in  i.-niin.! 
those  who  still  hold  to  such  an  olijei-tioii.  tlial  \\\<-\-  -.nr  liaiix 
iisin^-  maps  which  l)n_'Sfiit  the  coiitiiicnN  .-o  ha\iii.;  ■"'  .■-''7- 
whalfVLT.  save  the  al)ni[)t  siilcs  of  iiioiiiilaiii-  wlii'-ii  arc 
[iriiiteil  or  drawn  many  hundi-eil  times  Iud  larnc  to  lie  in  tiia' 
proportion  :  or  even  if  they  use  shadeil  map>  i"  [iii;i:irc  \\i,- 
relief,  tlie  exa!i'i:'eration  is  often  tliou^and-fold.  Thi^  icmiu't- 
one  quite  forcibly  (if  the  "  iznat  and  cann'l  "  nieiaplior. 

K\ery  re[iresentation  of  a  continent  nuist  lie  cnn-'!  acted 
on  a  douMe  scale,  one  for  ele\'ation  and  another  for  hoiizDU- 
tal  extension,  as  a  necessary  eontlilion  of  i>iTceiilion  an^l 
iniaL!.inati(jn.  A  f(.)rm  wlio>e  liniitatidiis  may  lie  inchidcd  in 
a  sinii'le  act  of  [)erce[ition  may  hi-  readily  recalled  in  tiii''  pro- 
portion ;  lait  a  surfa(/e  so  extended  that  its  whole  may  he 
conii)rehende(l  only  hy  a  xa'ies  of  acts  of  perccptinn  "l  ii- 
various  parts  can  never  he  imauined  in  its  J'ull  exttai-i^'ii. 
To  come  into  eoirsciou-ne-s  as  a  -in^'le  mental  >ta(e.  it  nui^t 
lie  (-(jiitracted  or  diminisjied  liy  the  imaLiinat  ion. 

1)V  the  same  power  \ve  may  aUo  reduce  a  I'l'ini  who-r 
limitations  may  he  included  in  a  siii^le  ai-t  nf  pcrccpti.>n.  and 
if  tht:'  rati(j  of  its  relief  to  its  cxt.ait  is  nut  inn  -i.'at.  v.c  may 
model,  draw,  or  otherwise  rc[ire^ent  it  to  the  >cn^e  of  t'iui-!i 
oi-  siLiht  in  true  pro[)ortion.  liiit  wlieii  the  si-alc  <,\'  rcdia-ti'M; 
of  the  area  is  so  iireat  that  to  aj-ply  the  same  to  t!ie  uiir:,i-^c.l. 
foi-nis  would  so  diminish  them  that  tlicy  c.mld  no  loii'jia'  h- 
l)erceive'l  hy  either  sense,  we  mu>t  adopt  tlie  douhle  sc;ilc  o! 
repref^entation. 

These  are  the  conditions  under  whi'^h  W(>  mu-*  r^  prc-.n; 
continents  s<j  as  to  ena'ile  the  ima'jinafioji  to  m.i'vc  a  >!!::!•• 
picture  of  surface  slo[»es  in  tiieir  relation^  of  po-idoii.  To 
illustrate:  if  it  is  dc-iivd  to  ma\c  a  man  of  a  tow  i, -hip  -i  < 
miles  sipiari'.  containiuL^'   a   hill  a  ip;a;t'i  of   ;i    mile  m  li'"._lit, 


134  THE  C'JIILI)  AMJJ   NATUUK. 

\vc  may  represent  all  ii[)oii  a  scale  of  one  incli  to  a  mile, 
making  the  town  six  inches  sqnare,  and  llie  hill  on.e-quarter 
of  an  inch  in  height.  This  would  preser\c  the  pro[)ortions 
to  both  sight  and  touch. 

lint  when  we  try  to  represent  North  America  with  its  higli- 
laiids  upon  a  school  map,  e.g.,  four  by  live  feet,  we  must,  in 
order  to  bring  tlie  coasts  within  that  size,  use  a  scale  of  at 
least  a  thousand  miles  to  a  foot.  'J'heii  the  great  western 
[)lateau  that  determines  tlie  general  slope  of  the  continent 
will  be  re[)resented  as  a  thousandth  [)a)1,  of  a  foot  in  height, 
less  than  the  thiclvuess  of  a,  grain  of  saud  or  a  pencil-mark. 
At  the  same  time,  the  height  of  land  dividiug  the  great  slopes 
of  the  31ississi[)[)i  and  3Iackeuzie  basins  will  reach  an  ele- 
vation of  only  on(,'  six-lumdri'dlh  of  an  incli.  On  a  mai) 
of  this  size,  Ihei'efoi'c,  e\-cu  the  highest  plateau  could  not  be 
drawn  or  moulded  S(^  that  the  most  delicate  sight  or  touch 
could  reveal  its  slopes. 

In  ma]<iug  a  relief  m-i})  of  NoiHi  America  .//"/''//  J'<'i'l  in 
length,  on  the  school  lawn,  a  scale  of  one  foot  to  a  hundred 
mil(\s  was  nsed.  Had  tlu'  saiue  scale  been  em|)loyed  in 
mal<ingthe  (■le\-ations,  the  highest  mouutain-[)eak  would  have 
]Tach('d  an  altitude  of  only  two-lifths  of  an  inch,  while  the 
important  heigiit  of  land  would  have  I'isen  less  than  one- 
tiftietli  of  au  inch  to  drain  the  slopes.  'I'he  (piestiou.  then, 
of  using  ;i  single  or  double  scale,  in  ma[)[)ing  a,  continent  by 
eillicr  modelling  oi'  dniwiiig,  is  one  the  oi'iginal  '•Ilobsou" 
would  have  been  delighted  to  solve,  as  there  is  Init  a  single 
choice. 

The  query  then  beconu's.  ••  How  much  nmst  tlie  two  scales 
diffei'?"  The  answer  may  hv  found  abo\-e.  The  A'crtieal 
scale  nmst  so  i'ai'  exceed  the  horizontal  that  the  important 
features  of    the  continent,    viz.,   the  tal)le-lands  and  slopes, 


SAyi)   MOhKl.l.ISC. 


iii;i\-  1k'  fii-^ily  iu'rc<'iv('(l  h\  touch  ;iip1  si'_;lit.  M.  iic  .\  ,t.  thr 
-liipcs  inu>l  lif  Ml  ili^ti'ii-tlv  iiiiiliiir'l  :i-  111  -ii(iw  i-li'.-i  il\- 
llif  i!|-;ii)i;mt'.  oi'  arrniiu'ciiiciil  1  > y  wliicli  llic  \\;ttcr>  nir  L;;it!i- 
(Tfil     into    li;lsilW.    :1U(1    ]'('tin'nril     to    llir    >c;l.        A>    lllr    «/■/";"/ 

I'mm  mikI  slojic  (Hily  ;irc  iicrc--;iiy  l.>  lln-  -tu-ly  of  (li\-iiii;iL;c. 
nml  as  the  luouMiiiii   i>  iiicrcly  a  /''//'/"-';/''  ol'   I'dini.  it  iii:i\'  I'c 

Wrll    to   allow   ([Uitf   a    little    iVtH'iloin    in     \\\y    U-c    nf    tlir    -r:ilr   ot 

(■lc\atioii.  turning  the  chiUr.s  alliaition  rnllui'  to  tlic  rrlali\(,' 
[M i^it ic m  ( if  >lopi's. 

Tlif  qiiotion  soiiM'tinirs  arises.  "AN'liy  not  ,lc-ci  il'c  llie 
surface  livwonls.  in  the  [ilace  ol'  niodellin'^  or  diawinur"' 
We  ha\'e  alreadv  seen  that  inoilellinu'  is  the  nio^t  natural  lan- 
u'uaue  of  foim,  and  that  a  model  will  lirinu  into  coii-eiou-ne-^ 
the  foiaii  which  it  s\ ml lolizes  inncli  more  leadiK'  and  di--- 
tinctly  than  will  a  woi'd.  .Moivo\  ci'.  a  \tr'ial  dc-(aii>l  ion 
l)re-,ents  liiitasmall  pait  at  a  time,  and  the  nitiital  eftoit  is 
lhii>  di\ided  liet\\een  rccalliiiL:'  <'oneeiit-  in  ^ncei--i.  Ml.  retain- 
ing- ihem  in  con>ciou>ne>s.  and  linaliv  lelalinu  ihcm  a-  tiny 
apiiear  in  the  whole. — a  [)roce-s  of  >vni  he' i/.inu'  lh:il  few 
matui'e  minds  could  ever  ho[ie  to  aec(ini|)li-li.  e\  cn  :i  ihr  ure:it 
effort  and  lon^'  ti'aininii'.  lint  the  moulded  ^^v  -haded  ma|i 
[ii'csi'nts  the  conruKait.  as  ;i  whole,  in  which  t!ie  rdalion-  o!' 
parts  may  he  riaidilv  |iei'cei\-eil. 

'I'ln'  map  in  actual  relief  has  ;i  'jicat  ad\anta'_;e  oxir'hc 
shadeit  oui'.  in  tlmt  the  formei'  ma\"  I'c  ni;idc  to  ;i)ijM:a  ■,, 
hoth  viiiht  and  touch,  while  the  liiltci'  c.-m  onl\-  lie  ].cicri\id 
hy  the  acipiiiT(l  form->en>e  of  sr^ht.  Thcivh'!'.  I  hei  i-l'.  •:  ■■. 
L:ive>  far  more  accui'ate  kiiowlcil-r.  and  ureailx'  -iioil'ii-  \\:<- 
time  necessnry  to  li\:  it  in   memorv. 

■•  Ihit ."  continues  the  ipieri-t .  ••  are  n<.t  t  lie  f.  h-mis  m.  id,, ■;',■.  1 
liy  the  pupils  \vv\  imptu-fi-ci.  imd  miuht  nol  ihc  liiiic  he  inore 
[irolitafily  s[ient  in  seeing'  and  feelin_^  llic  -ma'ace  d'  a  ca-'  :i- 


loG  THE   CHILD  AND   NATURE. 

perfect  ;is  could  be  obtained?"  jMo.st  assuredly  the  lirst 
liiap  made  by  a  child  is  very  im[)(M'fect  it'  compared  with  tlie 
liuished  cast,  but  it  is  an  a|»pr()ximately  perfect  reproduction 
of  the  form  in  his  mind.  Jt  is  nut  :i  wrong  form  to  the  child, 
for  his  cx[)ression  merely  symbolizes  his  own  concept;  and 
llie  attempt  to  rei)rodu(H'  incites  to  repeated  acts  of  observa- 
tion of  the  accurate  cast,  thus  enabling  him  to  correct  or 
rather  improve  his  ideal.  IIi'i'c  we  see  again  the  necessity 
of  always  having  a  model  before  the  class  for  comparison, 
'i'his  foi'm  of  ex})ressi()n  also  affords  the  teaclu'r  a  golden 
op[)()rtunity  to  look  into  and  examine  Uic  condition  and  mode 
<jf  action  of  cacli  mind. 

In  ]'e[)ly  to  the  second  i»art  of  the  (piestion.  it  cannot  bo 
gainsaid  that  no  child  or  mature  person  can  study  a  form  by 
merely  touching  it  a  u'reat  length  of  time  without  strong 
slinuilus.  or  great  effort  of  will.  Tliis,  however,  may  l)o 
readily  obviated  by  the  requirement  to  model  it. 

AVhile  thus  advocating  the  use  of  the  sand  as  a  means  of 
teaching  the  slopes  of  the  great  land-masses,  there  is  no  inten- 
lion  of  claiming  for  it  an  impoilance  greater  than  attaches  to 
many  other  devices.  S]<etc]iing.  shading.  i)ainting.  reading, 
describing  etc.  ouglit  not  io  be  neglccte(l.  l-'.ach  has  its 
appi'opriate  woi'k  1o  pei'I'oi-m.  and  power  to  develop,  and  will 
receive  mention  in  its  |,)i-oper  place  in  the  svstem. 


Tiii:  cLoiu:. 


\-Vi 


CIIAl'TKi;    XI. 


-I. -RELIEF. 

1.    nil:  (i/.oni:. 

Foriii  (iii'J  Si-.r. — After  the  i>iii)i!s  liavf  iiiailc  tlu-  oli- 
sci'vatioiis  falU'il  for  liy  tlif  I'leinciitai y  (|Ur>ti()iis.  ii  will 
iHMiuiic  no  tflliiiL!.'  to  com-iiKH'  lliriii  that  tlif  caitli  i^  roiiiul. 
ami  of  iinuifii-e  size.  Lohl!.-  licfoix'  this  time  tln'V  will  lia\f 
rcaclif(l  tlic--f  t'oiiclusioiis.  Thfy  cannot.  lio\vr\i'i'.  inca-mT 
(liffcfunt  arcs  upon  a  niciiiliaii.  ami  (li-co\-ci'  that  the  eaUli  i> 
not  ;i  })eifcct  hall  ;  neither  can  they  determine  the  iliffei'iaiee 
of  zenith  distance  hetweeii  two  stations,  and  \>\  triauLiula- 
tion  ciiniimte  the  earth's  dimensions  fi-om  the  measurement 
of  a  decree  ol'  circumference.  'I'hev  uui~-t  he  t^ld  the  leal 
form  and  >ize.  when  such  facts  are  I'c^uireil.  li  i-  tiuc  that 
hy  the  >winL;inu'  cylinder  and  the  uyrosci  .pc.  we  ma\'  illu-liati- 
that  a  liodv  tends  to  re\-olve  ahoiil  llu'  shoite-t  axis  ot'  iN 
li::ure.  and  per->ist  in  the  plane  of  its  I'otation  :  hut  the  api'li- 
eatiiiii  of  such  laws  [,)  conliiin  the  ex|)lauation  of  the  earilfs 
s|ilicriiidal  foi'in  does  iKtt  come  within  the  >co[)e  of  thi-  W(iik. 
'I'he  earth's  foiau  may  he  illustrated.  ImiI  not  cxplaind.  hy 
the  familiar  de\  ice  of  the  tin  hoop,  or  lai'Lif  hollow  ruhher 
hall  twirle(l  upon  its  axis. 

\\'e  >hould  a\()id  eoiifnsinL;'  pupils  hv  mere  thcDiit--.  If 
ci\-en  at  all,  they  should  he  rc-arded  a<  the  hare  opinion-- 
of   individuals,   which   as   ^•ct   -tand    uuproxru.      /•.',;•/..,•/,;,.//-',< 


138  TllK   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

theories.  Tims,  centrifugal  force,  or  rather  Newton's  "  lirst 
l:uv  of  motion,"  in:iy  l)e  illustrated  i)yniu(l  Hyini;,  from  a  cart- 
wheel, a  stone  from  a  sling,  the  breaking  of  lly-whecls  etc.  ; 
but  these  may  or  may  not  obey  the  same  law  that  made  the 
earth  an  oblate  spheroid.  Notwithstanding  Newton  has 
demonstrated  that  a  plastic  giobr,  rotating  like  the  earth, 
would  assume  its  exact  form,  it  still  remains  to  be  proven 
that  our  [)lanet  was  ever  in  a  semi-lluid  slate.  No  gocxl  can 
come  fiom  belief  in  such  theories.  Ik'lter  doubt  all  that  lies 
buried  in  mystery,  and  thus  keep  the  mind  active  in  investi- 
gation. ••  Doubt,"  not  belief,  "  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom," 
says  Ivitter. 

The  study  of  the  motions  of  the  earth  in  detail  is  not 
essential  to  the  study  of  relief,  and  ought,  thert'b.)re,  to  1)e 
deferred  till  the  relief  of  the  globe  and  continents  has  been 
studied.  ]Moreovei',  tlu.^  latter  work  will  greatly  deveIo[)  the 
imagination,  and  thus  pre[)are  the  [)Upils  for  the  more  ditlicult 
study  of  the  motions. 

In  the  district  study,  we  h;ive  led  them  to  think  of  the  earth 
as  rotating,  and  they  luive  oliserved  that  the  North  Star  seems 
to  be  in  the  axis  of  the  motion.  We  may  now.  if  indeed  it 
has  not  ali'cady  been  d(jne,  give  the  name  North  I'oh^  to 
the  spot  on  earth  dii'ectly  (?)  under  I'ohu'is,  and  South  Pole 
to  its  opposite.  They  have  also  o1)ser\'ed  the  varying  path 
of  the  sun  during  the  different  seasons,  and  the  lines  on  earth 
direelK'  under  its  highest,  lowest  and  middle  arches  niav  be 
nami'il  tropics  and  e(|uatoi'.  Although  not  esscntiMl,  these 
lines  will  be  of  service  in  locating  the  giol)e  w;iler-i);iiting. 

^Vith  these  simi)le  instructions  as  to  the  form  and  size  of 
the  earth,  the  ]ioles,  e(pi;iloi-,  and  ti'opics.  which  need  occupy 
not  more  than  two  lessons,  we  Jiiay  turn  directly  to  the  study 
of   relief. 


77//;  i,Lnni:. 


\:]'J 


Ciitf;/  of  the  ('/nlj,'.  —  l'ii[)ils  ;ir>'  I'caily  tn  -^tU'ly  thr  n-lirl' 
(if  fori'iuii  lands  wlifii  they  ha\t'  Icann'il  I.)  /-../J  ni' Mildn  1 
t'oniis  ami  iiiajis  ;  i.e..  when  llif  litlK'  hhmIcU  in  >an'l.  aipl 
tlu'  rhai'acli'rs  ux'il  uinm  inajis.  lia\r  lircn  :i--Mciah'il  wilii 
tht'ir  coiTi'spundinu'  c(>irt[iIs  nf  laud  and  wabM-  I'drni-.  d'lir 
powfr  ti)  iinai^inc  tlu.'  ui\*at  un>rrn  fvaUiiTs  !ia,>  Ikm.-ii  ui'adua.ilv 
dewliiiu'd  in  the  district  study  (  scl'  p.  (',7). 

Due  luaniuT  of  lirLiinninu'  thi>  \v<iik  is  [n  prt'-cut  to  tlu' 
class  an  ordinary  lilolii'  on  wiiicli  tlir  ui'fal  line  <<]'  plati-au-. 
from  CaiH'  Horn  to  flic  (aiic  of  (io.id  1Io}m'.  lo'^ctlicr  with 
llir  lonu'  >]oiK'  toward  the  Atlantic  an<l  the  -hort  one  tmvard 
the  I'acilic.  ha\'e  oeen  modelled  in  pullv.  'i"o  make  thi^ 
rciireseutatiop.  moi'e  complete,  the  teacher  [licturc^ihc  earth 
>urrounded  hy  its  atmo>phere  hearinu'  the  cloud-.  aUo  with 
its  laoad  \alley-~  partly  lilled  hy  the  occ;ui-.  it-  uivat  -lope-. 
taMe-lands.  etc.  Thi-;  is  to  turn  the  atlcution  from  the  sinn 
to  the  reality,  le-t  any  >tudy  mere  -ymhu!-. 

The  [lupils  mav  then  l)e  Km]  1i\-  (pie>tioii-.  and  hv  attempt- 
iiiu'  to  modid  the  same  i^eueral  form  upun  -niall  L;'."!ir-  or 
(a'oip  let -halls.  \i)  ilisrnri-i-  that  the  Lireat  plateau  cxl(aid-  a!mo-i 
aiounti  the  earth  in  the  -hape  of  a  loop  (Ji'  hoi-c-hoc.  \u<- 
ends  a[i[iroachinu'  each  other  iu  the  Souih  Atlantic;  ili;it 
the  slopes  within    the   loo|i   ;ire    nmcli    jouiicrtiian   t  ho-,-  w;;  ii- 

out  :    that    all  till'   loiiu'   '-lope-  encircle    the   -aim :ih;    that 

tlie  ocean  on  the  -idc  of  the  -hort  -lope  i-  much  !  he  |:n-^cr  : 
tliat  there  i-  ahoiit  three  tiim'-a-  ii,uch  w  ati-r  a-  l.'Ui  1  :  tici' 
the  oceans  extiaid  into  the  huid  ili  place-.  ;iiid  :,h;io-t  c;;!  ,.;i' 
lai'c'e  parts  of  thi-  hiL;hlaud  :  that  iu  ouc  pl:icc  tlicv  ,-u:  coii,- 
pletely  throllLzIl  :  that  thc-e  pai't-  or  l.-i  ud-:i;:!--c-  !■;,.■  iKiii;- 
•■continent"  .-hould  he  L^iveii)  arc  not  euird  iu  cxtcut  ;  lii.-i' 
each  continent  coiii.-nn-  a  portion  ol'  the  '_;Ioiic  p!:it.-a!i  : 
that    each    is    a    .-cctioii    of    the    loU::    and    -hoU    -lopc-ot     tiie 


140  THE   CHILI)   AND   NATURE. 

globe.  'I'li^'y  iii:iy  thru  study  tlic  position  ol'  the  Gi'cut  line 
of  i)l:itc':ius.  as  clt'teniiiiUMl  \)\  liic  poles  aiul  c'(|uator ;  tlie 
ilirectiou  of  oaeli  laud-niass  tVoiii  the  otiiers,  and  the  position 
of  each  contiiieiit  and  ocean  in  the  globe  relief. 

Tlie  teacher  should  direct  tlie  obsei'vations  by  judicious 
(piestioning,  but  the  [uipils  should  discover  the  facts  by  tlieir 
own  efforts.  ^Modelling  the  globe  sui'face  as  outlined  al»ovc 
is  an  excellent  device  for  i'i\-eling  the  attention  on  slo[ies, 
and  lixing  tlu;  facts  in  memory.  Sini[)Ie  oral  and  written 
deseri|)tions  should  also  !)e  reijuii'ed.  I'ieturcs  of  portions  of 
the  jilatt'aus.  slopes  and  oceans  should  be  shown  the  pupils, 
and  used  in  language  lessons  to  aid  them  to  imagine  vividly. 
^Ve  should  gladly  ac(H'[it  any  other  fads  discovereil  by  the 
children  ;  l)Ut  the  I'ule  should  be  to  s[)end  no  time  upon  un- 
important details,  or  upon  such  as  can  be  studied  to  better 
advantage  later,  at  a  time  when  they  are  essential  to  liigher 
generalizatioirs. 

This  globe  woi'k  should  be  very  simple,  and  as  soon  as  the 
pupils  have  a  fail'  knowledge  of  the  general  relief  and  relative 
positions,  the  woi'k  with  the  se[)ai'ate  continents  should  be 
begini.  Little,  if  any,  atteiition  should  be  paid  to  nuithe- 
matical  geography  at  this  stage  of  the  work. 

.'.    Tin:  (  o\Ti Miyrs. 

The  gi'catest  fault  in  all  geogi'aphy  work  is  the  attempt  to 
teach  too  many  details  f>f  relief,  outline  and  location.  How 
often  are  our  little  children  foiTcd  to  model  and  diaw  hun- 
dreds of  unimportant  forms  of  ri'ljcf  mid  coast-line  which  the 
teachers  themselves  cannot  retain  in  nieniorv.  and  which 
lliev  consider  woi'thless  in  1l!"ir  own  ediie:i1ioii  !  ;ind  all  this 
merely  bee;iu>e  they  are  in  tin,'  liook,  and  may  be  calhMl  for 
in  an  examination. 


TIIK   (OX  lis  KS  l<. 


141 


The  ovcrworkt'il  iniiuls  \\\\<{  hidkrii  cMn-tit  uti' iii<  ;u;iiiii'_r 
srliool-i'liil'lrcu  if--ull  luit  ^o  inucli  fiuin  '■■■-  ,,/■',,'/  -lui'iio  ;i- 
I'roin  /'"/  iiixfh  slndy  (>(  worsr  liiaii  Wdi'ililc^-  ^Iin:,!!-.  In  im 
siil)JL'(.'t.  willi  tlif  i)()>silil('  cxcfptiiiii-^  o\  ;iril  i;i!ir!!.-  ami  lii-- 
toi'v.  i-;  this   Icrrililc   fault    limrf   uiariim'   'i.aii    in    L:ri.-Taj'li\  ; 

llOl'     will      lilt'     ]i1'()1mT     rflllrdy     lir     fdUlijl     till      --'.irii     1  rai 'i  H 'I'-. 

liaN'iuu'  a  liiizliiT  aim  than  to  iirciiarc  I'or  a  su|'criii!rihlriil\ 
fxaiiiiualioii,  realize  that  they  afe  in  a  uieal  ileLi'ee  uiniallv 
re>|i()ii<ilile  for  the  s:i(]  laiiu  ea.iHed  1  ly  nxeiwi  i;k.  1-  it  nut 
e(|uivaleiit  ti)  lioldiiiii  [Misiiimi  aiitl  ImiMiiiu'  re[iiitali(iii  at 
the  exi)taise  of  the  health  auil  iiiiaital  Liiowtli  of  liitif  ilhl- 
(Ireii.  <leiiri\'iiiu'  them  (^f  the  time  ami  ojijioi'tuiiii  \'  to  ■lexch)]! 
theif  mimls  and  Ixtdies.  ami  store  up  useful  kiiow  IcmJ-c  ? 

In  (leeidiiiLi'  wliat  features  of  relief  and  outline  to  t.-ai-!i. 
!nay  we  not  lind  a  safe  i:uide  in  this    prineiiile 'r       7'-  '■/'    n",/', 

fnrnis  <i  liiJ  filr!.<  mihi  ii.-<  ,1  re  CSS'  /I'i.ii  hi  '■i/,>'.,'/  ///«-   ,-■./•'   s^ji   /./ 

f//r  srir, !<■('.  ouiittiuu'  tlu>  luass  of  details  that  luny  tlie  iiniiwr- 
tant  features  and  serx'e  mei'elv  to  (aii-h  mental  ai'ti\il\. 

.Modi'llin^'  and  di'awinu  <liould  ui>  hand  in  i;and.  tlie 
formei'  lieinu'  tlie  hot  of  ail  de\'ii-es  fdf  li\-idinL!'  pupils  i,i 
study   surfaee   >lope.  the    laltr;-   to   ^tudv   i-o;!-! -lini-   nr    line- 

aloU'J.'  whiell  the  slope-  eXtrud  Ull'lrl'  tlie  -ra.  .1''  ;■'  '/^p' 
,s///(///    shniihl     /riiil    tn    Ih"    rinilin-     y ,.  ,>  ,7/  , ,.  .<     'p'    .s'"/.'X.     ^'/,. 

hdsis  nj'  (l/;ii,i'i<fi\  ddie  pla'-in.:'  o!'  ni^unl  aiii-rau'^i'-.  Ial\rs 
anil  rivers  is  of  hut  little  \alu.'  oeupMi-fd  wit:!  h'-aiiu'.;-  ih.' 
'j.'reat  plateaus,  tral•in^■  \'nr  pi'incipal  u  at  ■i'-pa  1 1 'u:!-.  f' 'ili  i\\  iiiu 
slopes  down  to  the  ri\'ei'-hed-  and  thiaer  t^i  tl.^'  -''a.  Sup- 
plement the  mo.lellinu'  ;ind  di'awiii-"  at  e\ia'y  -o-[i  !  i\  I'v!' i:ii_:". 
pietiu'e-sindy.  stoiies  ,■('■. 

l-]aeh  continent  >hould  at  lir-l  he  i-.  .;,-'d.i  d  i  a-  a  p^'i'-n  of 
the  o-lol),.  ndief  with  its  1.  mu  and  -ii-i  1  -h'|'r-.  I'-  p.-iiiou 
:ind    area    /••  I<i/irr    to    tl thn-s    and     to   the   me; 


.l;..uld 


142  THE   CHILD  AND    NATUllE. 

also  ])e  studied.  Then  tlie  direct  study  heii'ius  l)y  placing 
lesser  plateaus  (mountains  are  of  minor  importance)  on  tiie 
long  slope,  making  the  slopes  from  the  primai'y  and  second- 
ary highlands  meet  along  the  lines  which  locate  the  beds  of 
the  priiici[)al  rivers.  As  has  hecn  already  stated,  the  study 
of  direction  of  slopes  is  of  greatest  importance.  Compared 
with  it.  the  mere  location  of  isolated  features  or  places  sinks 
into  insignillcance.  "When  the  principal  c<)ntinental  slopes 
have  been  grouped  as  river-basins,  the  rircat  viounlain-riuiges 
that  nerve  as  ehief  trater-parh'jtys  to  (lie  basins  may  next  be 
located.  (live  and  use  the  names  of  important  general 
featuri's  only.  Concentrate  the  study  on  fot'ni,  rather  than 
on  7in iiU'S. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  teaching  a  great  lunnbei'  of  features, 
lest  the  im[)ortaut  ones  be  lost  in  the  confused  mass.  Water- 
parting  ranges  have  been  selected  because  of  their  inlluence 
upon  rainfall  and  the  direction  of  (b-ainage.  Tui^ils  should, 
of  coui'se.  know'  that  certain  {tlateaus  arc  erosse(]  by  many 
lesser  I'anges.  but  should  ciilci'  into  no  detailed  study  of 
Ihcm. 

Ixc(piii'(>  Ihc  pupils  to  Icai'u  the  heights  of  but  very  few 
liighlands.  imly  the  average  heiglits  of  tlie  great  plateaus, 
which  as  a  lule  may  be  doubled  foj-  nxamtain-ranges, 
and  which  g<'nerally  inci'case  in  elevation  toward  tlie  tropics 
for  at  least  on(>  obvious  I'cason  of  causing  I'ainfall.  Wlieii 
Ijie  (irerdije  Jiri(jJifs  of  tfiilrj--i)inii lu/s  or  tuhjr-ld n(Is  in  one 
co'iitiiieiil  //lire  hcen  shullcd.  lliose  of  Uic  olln'r  In ml-rntisses 
sJiotiJd  he  It'll rneii  h'/  i-'iiii/i'irison.  ]\Iemorizin'_i'  aetual  lieiLiht-^ 
of  moinitain-peaks  is  clogging  the  mind  wilh  ti'asli  which, 
fortunately,  it  is  able  to  thi'ow  off  as  soon  as  its  possessor 
leaves  school.  Such  study  belongs  to  the  geologist  and 
meleorolou'ist.  but  not  to  vouiisj,'  students  of  u'eou'i'aitliv. 


rill-:  ro.YV 7  \  /•;.v  vs. 


14;] 


T.ciiLi'tlis.  lii'e:ultlis  'M\>\  areas  slmulil  he  tifntnl  iti  the  -nine 
liriit'fal  way.  i.e..  ineiiiofizinu'  the  avei'aii'e  Irimth.  liiTU'ilii  aii'l 
total  area  of  (I'm-  eoutineiit.  ami  IraniiiiLi'  llie  o'.hci-^  liv  cim- 
parisoii.  These  facts  are  sullieieiit  to  eiialile  piqiiU  to  jiiiLie 
ai>proxiiiiately  tlie  ilinieii^ions  ainl  ai'ea^  of  ur*'at  plalrnii- 
and  ri\er-l>:i>iii>  when  such  kiiowh'doc  i-  rciiuiieil.  Let  the 
pllliiN  sluily  r,,iiir,iriifii-r  elevations  of  lij-iteau-.  i-,,ini>-i  i-'i'i  '■'■ 
areas  of  eonlineiits.  roiKjxi rdfii'i'  sizes  of  i  i\-cr-l'a^in^.  e^z-^- 
j„ir'i'iri   leuuth-  of  rivers,  ami  all  liy  aeti;:il  '■duij.^i ris-m. 

Kuowleil^e  of  the  exact  iiinnlier  of  >i|iiare  mile--  in  the 
vai'ion>  i'i\er-liasiiis.  countries  oi'  e\t'ii  continent--  i^  not 
worth  reiiieinhcriuL'".  NN'hat.  then,  shall  he  <aiil  o\'  the  actual 
heights  of  inountain-jieaks.  leni:tlis  nf  rixci's.  aica^  nf  >i;ile-. 
populations  of  cities  (>te.  ''  \\'e  Ncntui'''  to  --av  that  the 
teacher  iloes  int  li\'e  who.  altho'.iLili  ln'  may  h,a\e  -ecu  tlicui 
tiftv  times  a  yeai'  for  fiflv  yeai<.  is  ahle  oi'  h;i-  nnv  ile>iie  to 
lie  ahli'  to  repent  from  inemoi-v  n  tentli  |iart  of  the  follies  nf 
f;!ct  au'l  Ihjui-c  which  are  onlinnrily  tlirown  into  ihe  chiM's 
minil  as  if  it  were  some  old  attie  to  I'eceixc  all  t  iiis  i  nlJ  lisii 
which  (li-^Liraecs  the  name  n\'  knowled-e. 

The  sindv  of  -lopes  shnuld  lend  Us  doWII  1"  the  srn .  niid 
ju-t  hci'c  the  outline  sKctchin-'  lM-_iins.  (  On-t  line-  mn:■i^ 
the  hei-ht  to  which  watci'  I'i-cs  nii  tiu'  -lope-  ,.f  the  -ivnl 
\-nllevs  of  tile  cni-th.  They  thu-  -ei'\-.'  to  indiente  wheiv  nnd 
to  what  extent  the  -ea  cntei-  the  Innd-mn-se-  to  -i!pi'!y  mei-!- 
ui-c.  eijuali/.c  tcmpernl  lU'c.  fneilitnic  .-(immcree.  pr^Ui'ite  eix;!- 
izntion  etc.  In  detci'minin-j.'  how  far  we  -iinuld  euNn'  \i,\" 
the  ,-tndv  of  detnils.  we  -hould  I'e  -uided  ! 'V  i';!-  u-e  w  -  niv 
to  malvc  of  the  knowlcdu-c  ■gained.      A  -nfe  luie  i-  lo  f.'.ri,    ,,■ 

I'l  rst  XiifJt  i  I, ih'iihif  !<),,.<  Ill), 1  i,r,,j.  .■■:-. lis  '  ^n' ^.  "<  '.''',■'  ''  ';.''/■/,■■" 
iiijJi'CiK'c  ni-rr  till'  rliiii'ilc  nf  rf  iiii-'j''  /rirf''.'<  ■/>'  c  ,,,'-„./-' . 
Other-  mnv  he  added  wlien  re.juio-d. 


144  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

For  extuuple,  in  North  America,  in  addition  to  tlie  general 
directions  of  the  coasts,  we  sliould  teach  the  Ciulf  of  ^lexico, 
because  it  i3U[)pIies  rain  to  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  JNIexico  ; 
Hudson's  Bay,  on  account  of  its  intluence  over  tlie  climate 
of  British  America;  Florida,  because  it  modifies  the  speed 
and  direction  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  an  important  factor  in  tlie 
climate  of  Europe.  But  to  teach  the  scores  of  little  ])a3's 
and  windings  of  coast-lines,  within  or  around  the  greater 
forms,  seems  not  only  a  gi'cat  waste  of  time  and  energy,  l)ut 
also  an  absolute  injur}'  to  the  [)upils.  Such  study  of  details 
at  first  thwarts  the  very  ol»ject  of  the  lesson,  l)y  preventing 
the  mind  from  com[)reheuding  the  important  general  outline 
or  relative  directions  of  (x-ean  borders,  ^^'e  often  hear  it 
said  that  the  drawing  of  mai)S  in  detail  ti'ains  i)Upils  to 
accuracy.  Is  there  not  enough  useful  or  practical  work 
which  will  afford  the  same  discipline,  without  the  loss  of 
time  and  other  injurious  effects  of  the  former?  jMay  not 
the  same  amount  of  care  be  l)estowed  on  a  simple  outlint' 
as  on  a  more  complicated  one?  Klal)orately  finished  mai)s 
devour  much  valuable  time  in  making,  and  when  completed 
do  not  afford  any  l)roader  l»asis  than  the  simpler  ones  Un' 
reasoning  toward  the  life  of  tlu'  globe. 

]\loreover.  very  little  of  such  work  can  l)e  memorized, 
while  the  amount  of  lal)or  and  study  spent  on  one  of  these 
maps  would  generally  suflice  to  leai'u  th.e  general  oullines  of 
all  tin;  continents.  II  might  profit  those  who  spend  so 
much  time  for  the  i)ui'pose  of  olitaiiiing  exact  copies  of  the 
maps  in  their  text-hooks,  to  compare  such  work  wilh  a  sm;d! 
section  of  coast-line  ow  a  chart  of  the  coast  survey.  It 
would  doubtlessly  s;n-(>  the  children  maiiv  lioui's  of  laboi'ious 
imitation  of  l)Ook  f(jrms  which,  although  very  accurate^  in 
genei'al  contours,  are  very  impei'fect  in  details. 


■rill-:  (oxrixhwr 


1  In 


^^nlh]l!|UJ.  — Tlu'  lilsl  loxui  oil  tlif  ->uir:i(i'  111'  r:ic|i  ccii.li- 
lu'iil  >ii()iil(l  1)1'  uixfii  t'lom  :)  l;irL^('  ix-lid'  iii:i|).  iiinilcllcd  in  the 
[)rcs('iicc  (if  till'  chi.^s.  or  [irt'vioiislv  prcpMrnl  Ky  Uic' li-acluM'. 
ami  ^IkuiM  Icail  Id  I  he  olisci'vation  of  i  he  uriHial  ai  i  aii-rinriii 
of  >lo|iC'^.  loi^cllirr  with  the  L!t'in'ral  (lircclioii-^  nf  roa^l-liiir-. 
A  slioi'l  <K'>(  rijil'mii  nf  a  j(iiii'iic\  a(  l'"s-^  tlu'  •^icat  valleys  aii'l 
plateaus.  aUi)  a  rapiil  xoya^^e  aiuiiinl  tlie  ciia-I,  may  lie  iiiviai 
i>y  llu'  teaclici'.  iiit'iiliDiiiiiL;  oiih-  such  ^aliciil  i-liai  aclcri>iic- 
;is  will  Irail  till'  cla-s  in  iniauiua.lion  tiiiouizli  tin-  rt'piT--rn- 
tation  U)  tiic  ivalily.  'I'liu  (rnririi>inns  of  ilir  cdnliiMail . 
fXpressed  in  miles,  cdnyi'y  little,  if  an\'.  i'lea  of  iN  iiiie  -.i/,.  ; 
liut  an  iiii|ires-i(in  of  inniien--il y  of  area  ma\'  lie  -ixeii  li\ 
nolini:'  the  lenuths  of  time  oe(ai[iieo  in  \  ai'ioi;-  trip>  aero-s  the 
>urfaee. 

\\'h(aie\-er  new  plaee>  are  nuait  lolled,  they  should  he  indi- 
cated on  a  iilief  ma|).  and  theii'  name--  wriileu  upi-ii  the 
hiacklioard.  ju^t  as  in  the  idemeiitar\'  wmk.  I'icture--  and 
supph'inentaiA'  rea<liii'j,'  ;i:^l  iiieally  in  leadinu'  I'Upil-  to  -ee 
I'eal  land  and  water  tlii-dULih  tlie  moulded  I'l.iui--. 

Afha-a  lesxiii  or  two  on  the  niiil\'  of  the  iMiiliiHait .  and 
when  the  teacher  i-.  cerlain  that  t!ie  map-  really  leeall  iiatiiial 
forms  of  land  and  water,  the  pupiU  iiia\'  -MrK'  the  relief  hy 
iiKidellinLi'  it  in  sand.  ela\'  or  piitl  y.  on  1  he  innde  1-1111-. 

'Idiei'e  are  \ari<ii;v  wa\-  ol'  leadinu'  iiit'>  the  -Iud\  dt'  relict'. 
ainon-i  tli(Mii  t  he  foliowiuu'  :     - 

i'irst.  After  the  lo-dli-  UpdH  general  relief,  a-  previ- 
ously sUL!'L;'e-teil.  place  a  modlcl  dl'  the  cdllliueiM  hefLlc  the 
class,  and  let  tliiuu  ri-prddiic"  it  '/"'■.■/,■/'■  -rvcial  iiu.e-  in  -.iiid 
U|idn  luddcl-tin--.  withdiit  any  I'urt  hei-  aid.  'I'Ip'  .piaA  ic'd- 
elliuL;'  [irevaaits  dwelliirj  iipdu  iiiumpdrtaiit  d<-l:i:l-.  .aiid  ie:id- 
td  the  .-tiidy  df  the  Mi'cat  plateaus  and  sidp.--.  jii-l  as  i.apid 
sketching'  leads  to  LifutU'al  diillines 


146  THE   CHILI)   AND   NATUBE. 

Second.  Direct  the  order  of  study  by  modelling  with  the 
pupils,  talkiiig  little,  but  ref^uiring  tlierii  to  observe  and 
imitate. 

Tliird.  jModel  with  the  class,  at  the  same  time  descri])iiig 
the  great  slopes,  in  order  to  lead  the  imaginations  out  to  the 
reality. 

Fourth.  Let  the  class  repi'oduee  from  a  model  or  cast, 
while  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  pupils  reads  vivid  ])ut  simi)le 
descriptions  of  the  parts  as  they  are  studied. 

Fiftli.  Ask  i)U[)ils  to  describe  orally  the  various  natural 
regions  l)ef()re  modelling  them,  obtaining  tlieii"  infoi'ination 
fi'om  the  relief  models. 

Then,  too,  the  continents  should  Ik;  studie*!  from  tlie  sen- 
level  \\\)  the  main  slopes  to  the  water-partings.  'I'liat  is. 
the  sand  may  lirst  be  spi'cad  out  evenly  u|)()n  tlie  tins  ;  then 
the  yeiientl  coast-line  traced  in  it;  and  linally  the  slopes  Itnilt 
in  tlie  order  of  importance,  l)ack  from  the  mouths  of  the 
great  rivers  to  the  water-jtarlings  or  })latcaus.  the  mountains 
being  added  last.  As  the  pupils  have  already  studied  the 
general  arrangement  of  slo[)es  in  the  continent  as  a  whole, 
this  process  of  conscious  svntlu'tizing  \'iolates  no  law  of 
concept  growth.  ^  cry  little  time  shouhl  1k^  spent  in  making 
coast-lines  in  the  sand,  as  they  may  be  more  readily  learned 
by  sketching. 

In  studying  from  water-i)artings  to  the  sea-coast,  the  pri- 
marv  plateau  should  be  modelle(l  lirst  ;  then  add  tlie  long  and 
short  slopes  and  the  secondai'v  plati'aus.  eai'c  being  taken  to 
keep  the  true  i'elati\-e  positions  of  highlands.  Finally,  when 
the  main  slopes  of  the  river-basins  have  thus  Ix'cn  located, 
the  coast-line  may  be  a  little  more  cari'fully  traced,  and  the 
principal  niountain-i'anii'es  added.  This  is  an  excellent  means 
i)f  diret'ting  the   attention   to  slo[)es.  and    in   tliis    I'cgard    is 


THE  rr)xri\i:\T<.  147 

superior  to  any  of  the  othci's.  Ni-xi  in  \;i!in'  \<<  thi-  i-  iii."l- 
flliiiL:  from  the  se:i-L-oast  to  tin-  wahT-piirtinu-.  A'.i  «'t'  t'.n- 
:ilio\-e  devices  ha\-('  pi'oven  [iraetieaiiy  i:<mm1.  nn.l  iii:i\  In-  ii-.-d 
for  variety  in  presenting;'  tlie  sauu'  coutini'nt  inanv  time-. 

Still  another  sim^e^tinn  may  In-  fi,iuii'l  lit'lpfi;!  in  lii-h- 
scliool  or  e(.)Ih';j.'e  work  in  tlie  u'r' '1' i^'i'^ai  >lii'lvii!'  >trui-tiiiv  ; 
viz..  to  luiiM  the  lii2lilan(l>  in  the  >Ufcc-.~i(  m  in  wliicii  i.hi'\ 
appear  to  have  risen  from  t!ie  ■^ea.  thn<  con-iilcrim:'  -l..pr- 
aii<l  ri\-fr-hasin<  ehronoloL;i''ally.  ]>ut  as  iii-iri''Ulii'n  in  tinic 
heloiiLis  to  Ci-eolr)u-v.  ami  only  distrilintion  in  -[lart-  tn  -j^i-o-j.- 
I'aphy.  such  worlv  wouM  lie  out  of  phii-i-  in  llic  cdnimtin- 
srhool  syslfiii.  Pupils  shouM  he  rcipiirt.-.!  in  iltpcM'l  \  1  r\ 
lamely  u[ion  their  own  study  of  tlie  m.^lel.  nil  tlie  :i'"'\e 
devices  lieiuLZ'  used  to  hicite  to  mure  careful  and  (■■'ntmui'i 
ol)ser\ation. 

The  individualitv  of  the  teacjici'  will  ~i;_;i:c-t  \ariiiiis 
deviee>  for  directinu,'  the  i  >!  i-ervat;<  mi  to  j;,  r!  ii-ii!ar  fe:iiurcs. 
Thus,  wlieii  a  handful  of  sand  i-  piac'il  in  a  n.a--  "!i  'die 
location  of  a  [ilateau.  the  child'-  mind  i-  led  diivcih^  t'l  <  '.  .;,- 
tioii.  ^\dlen  the  teachei'  mM\c-  lii<  li.-ind  -Im\\-|\  fiMn!  t!i.' 
mouth  of  a  liieat  ri\'er.  ilrawimr  hai-iv  the  -and  :_rad:iall\"  t" 
hiiiiiei-  and  hi_;hei-  [lortion-  of  the  e(  iiitincn;-.  lin-  \er\'  Ui'Ac- 
lllent  is  sULlLl'estiw  of  .^li.jii'.  In  fact,  thi-  i-  I 'lie  di'  ;!;■■  \ci-y 
lie>t  devices  for  liolilini;-  the  atteiiti- Mi  i;p, 111  tlie  relad\c  j"i-i- 
ti(jns  of  the  -lopes  of  the  -real  ri\-ei'-' 'a-in-.  Diaw'nj  ^M.th 
hands  at  the  -ame  time  from  the  mnudi-  nf  iiilV'-na,;  r;\cr- 
toward  the  common  hiL^hland  1  between  ih,  ni.  diivi't-  ;  li,-  at N-n- 
tion  to  'i-iif'  /•-jitii-ti/iijs.  'Id.e  \aa-\"  na  i\r]ra-nl  of  ['<<<■  iiand- 
in  moilellinu'  thus  lita-()mes  a  p<i\v.  rful  ai'l  in  dii^^ct  i[,_;  the 
oliservations  of  a.  ela--.  d'he  pup;!-,  ni^ 'I'l  i\  .-r.  '.'.hi  ui^'^n- 
sciously  imitate  these  mi>\'ements  in  tii-'ii-  o'.vn  w^ik.  and  -^ 
direct    their    own    studv    to  the   c-s,-ntial-  i'f   relief.       Otiau- 


1  IS 


77/ /■  ciiii.n  AM)   .v.i/T /;/■;. 


iiu'ul.-il  ciTitK  iii.-iv  1>(>  produced  li_v  i>llu'r  movcuu'iits,  Imt 
llh'^o  -.n_^'^ --i  i(>iis  will  sri\i'  lo  iiidicaU'  ;i  liiu'  of  sHidy  I'or  llic 
li'achtT. 

I  .('--->.  Ml--  I  Ml  I'lM'laiii  iilauts,  aniiiiaU  and  I'arrs  ot'  ukmi  will 
aUo  arini"-!'  iiiUMi--i'  iiiUMi"-!  in  rclicr.  ln'sides  makiiiLi,'  it  apix'ai' 
iihMi'  ii'id.  rini->  lih'  >liidv  o\  llu'  rauud.  with  lii^  remarkaiiK' 
\\'c\.  kiu'i's.  u  :iUa-  poiu'li  and  I'oihI  liiniij)  carrii's  us  dii'i'cllv 
w  llh>  liurniiii:  tu'^iMis  ;  tlu'  cdr!\\ri->s  UMUpls  us  lo  clauilu'i' 
i>\rr  llu'  iM'aiis  and  prcriiMccs  of  llu'  Alps  ;  in  (Mir  searrli  for 
I'iids'  e;:-j.-,.  w  r  are  lc>\\ered  in  iinauination  o\  er  the  hii:ii 
i'liff->  of  tile  Norweiiian  licM'ds  ;  the  llama  eondiiets  ns  liv  a 
tortuous  pe.ili  np  ilu'  moup.taiu-sides.  1,1  the  plateau  iA'  the 
\ude^  :  tlir  1  Miieli  direct  us  1,1  ih.e  lowland  and  dvke  rcLiioii 
o\  I'niopi'.  in  short,  we  read  a'uMit.  or  --tudv  in  [tietures, 
lhe->e  foruw  o\  lil'e.  as  another  mean--  '<\   leadiuu'  tv>  the  surface 

fol'Uls. 

W  hen  pupils  ha\"e  acipiircd  fair  knowledL:i'  of  the  uentU'al 
relief,  the\  -lauild  li:;\e  readiiiL:des^,Mis  upon  tlie  desei'iptions 
i:i\eu  in  I'ooi^s  of  tra\-el,  ^eoi^rapliics  and  u'coLfrapliii-.al 
re:ider--.  l'ia'\'  --hould  '>e  i  uioura^ed  Ii>  hriiiL:'  'o  srliool  anv 
pictures,  specimens  or  --tories  hrai'inc  U['on  tlu'  work,  that 
would  iic  i>\  inti  r.'-t  to  tiicir  clas-,uiates.  'I'lic  heliosiat,  hv 
L:i\in;:  \icw-  <'\  \:iriou--  parts  ol'  the  land,-uias-,cs.  will  ureatly 
aid  the  i;ua_:iria;  ion.  O'isor\  at  iou^  >!iouK!  he  miidci.l  hv  ina[> 
ipe,c--t '.o',i->  a!-o  hTidiinj,'  tinvard  sti'ucturc. 

(hie  ,'\  tile  \cry  hc-t  de\  ices  I'or  -tudyiirj,'  slope  i>  ih.at  {>!' 
Uuikiuir  ■■iud  lirawin^-  •  ■  -ss-nc.-'-'' ■  .<  ol'  the  -and  models.  Select 
>u.h  --1'.-! '.  ";■-  ; -ce  map  on  p.  li'M  as  w  i!l  -how  cleai'I\'  tht> 
;i',o-i  imp'ortae;  w  :itcr-pai '  ui^s,  slopes  airi  i'i\  lU'dicds  ;  tlu-u 
1  ut  ih.e  con:;n,i,'s  c. 'an 'Icirl\'  aero--,  and  draw  awav  one 
part.  I'he  pupil-  -liould  then  sivcich  the  sections  thus  made. 
The  :     ;,Mtauce  lA'    thus  de\  ice    cannot    he   (nei'-estiiuated.  as 


I  HE  COMIX  i:\  r 


it    IfU'ls    Li)   StU'ly   'JiC   r,,„fi„r,,fs  -/.>■   s-o/A/.s.    whicli    -llMiiM    lir    il,. 

i;nilfi'I\-iiiu-  llinUL;lit  (if  rt-lift'  nr  slope  -iicK.  (  iii  iin-  iiMiii- 
iiciit-  in  xaii'iti--  (linM-lidii^  to  -Ihav:!!!  lin-  iiii];i  iriaiil  -io|,i.-.. 
(  )|-al  ainl  writlcii  (li'>rri[ilioiis  :iN<i  -ImmiM  ^m-  (M'ra>iiiii;ill\- 
ri'(|uirfi|. 

\\  llfil     IWii     ci  .lltilli'llts     lia\-('     lii-fll     -tUiliiMi     ill     ihi^     !;iali!lr|, 

(•(iiii[»ai'','  Ihcir  area-.  LiTiicral  dulliiio,  >izi'  airl  >  iiivct  i.  .n--  oT 
piatraus.   ,>In|)r-.    ri\cr-lia.-~iiis  dc.      In    fact.  "/'.,•  ,,,/.    r, ,;,.-, - 

n>'ol  has  l„r„    r.inf.llhl  st:,.ll,.,l.    thr    ,r,,,-j,     ,,■;//,    ,,lrli    .  ,  <'  >  h .     ,,th,   r  .< 

nulls  i,,rhi,I.'  ,,„/'/  /A.'  >i'-,>('ral  J'l  'I'^i,-'  s  /,/  '■/,/.•//  //  -/;.'/;  rs  fr^.n, 
tlir  (,111-  i,r  iiim-i'  (iji-i-'iini  h 'I  ri'CiL  \<>'S*-\\irr  \\\\\\  the  ,  ,l,-,cr\:i- 
li'ili  til'  the  i-c-cniMaiicr-,  aiimii^-  aU.  \\\  wm-iNiii--  in  acciM-N 
ai!i'c  wiui  this  \-ri-y  iiii[)i(i1aii!  iirini-iplc  df  cdiiccjil  uKiwili. 
liiilcti  tiiiif  alul  laliDi'  iiia\-  I>c  -axel. 

AMlity  td  hkmIc!  aii'l  (!c-(a'ilM'  a  "dn;  iii.-nt  .iwi-Mx  ai!'l 
acciiralfiy  iVd'.ii  iiicnidry  may  1m'  acfcplcl  a-  cv  iMi'!irc  df  a 
ili^tiiH't  mciitai  I'ictiiiv.  Pii{iil-,  ^lidiiiil  not.  iidWi-\  .-r.  I  ir 
I'C'iuii'cil  td  !iid:lcl  frdiii  iiirii.r'iy  until  tlif  c:  .|ii-ia 't  of  tl,,. 
Li'i'lH'l'al  I'di'iii  i>  cjrar.  I'litil  tluMi  al\va\s  l,a\i'  a;i  ai-riirat.- 
I'flicf  iiia|iat  liainl  fdl'  rci'i-i'fii'-c.  'I'lic  iiidiiMiir^  -a-Ml  -l.^iill 
lif  laiil  a-iilc  ju^t  as  -ddii  a-  piiliiU  i-an  imauini-  iia'  '"Mi- 
liiMital  i-iTirf  withdiit  it-~  aiil.  It-  I'lnlli'i  u-i-  \\diiM  wcaidii 
I'at  licr  than  -~trrii'_;1  hcii  tip'  iiiiauiiiat  ii  in.  'I'hrii'  ai  v  .  h  ■,-!-!'  ^n- 
wliirli  call  a'^'ain  I'di'  tln'  iiiduMt-i]  t'diii,-.  w'l'ii  '\\<-  !<'!i,-r  i~ 
sci-dii(lary  td  tin'  ^iUilv  ^•'^i  fainfall.  xt'-c!  at  i^n.  hi-;.>!\  i-tr. 
'riifsc  will  !i,.  shdwn  iiii'lta'  t!]'-ir  api 'I'dj 'liali-  sn''ii(a-. 

iMakiiiLf  til.-  ivlirf  df  dnc  r..ntiii,Mii  th-  ha-:^  I-''  -Mdvinv, 
aiidthri'.  wilhdiil  ^tdjiiiinu'  td  I'dat^'  ilir  dia  1^  !:,.■  wia-l-. 
rainfall  anil  lil'c  i^  the  nid->!  m  .n- an  i^a  1  ni-ihi'  ni'  -a'  ji'it-. 
it  is  as  tai^y  td  I'taivon  \\\f  caii^i--  nf  th.-  ciri-iih.n. -n  nf  w  in-;- 
alt  d\-('f  till'  u'ldlii'  as  ii  i-  df  thi-  fi'U-  tiiat  affiM-t  dill-  ii.'i-iiin 
i)f    till-    .-.111  fare,    fdl-    in    liliici     ra-f    we    Lai    haia^    \"    iia     -anic 


150  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

influences  of  solar  heating  and  rotalion.  lietter  study  tlie 
relief  of  the  continents  in  succession,  and  then  relate  the 
whole  to  the  wind  circuits. 

Tliere  are,  of  course,  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  order 
ill  which  the  land-masses  should  be  considered,  and  circuin- 
SLiiiices  must  to  a  large  extent  control  this.  If  history  is  to 
be  studied  in  the  grade  which  is  to  begin  the  relief  work, 
it  would  perhaps  l)e  belter  to  work  for  a  short  time  with 
Europe  and  North  America  from  i)hysical  and  political 
nia[)S,  dwcUing  u[)()n  tliem,  however,  only  long  enough  to 
prepare  to  locale  historical  events  by  relief.  Such  lessons 
may  be  givt'ii  at  any  time,  and  lU'ed  not  interfere  with  the 
orderly  development  of  the  science.  The  order  of  simplieity 
and  sequence  in  relief  would  suggest  the  study  of  South 
America  as  a  tyi)e,  to  be  followed  successively  by  North 
America,  Asia.  Euroi)e,  Africa  and  Australia.  Some  teach- 
ers prefer  to  l)egin  with  North  America,  and  refer  all  the 
other  forms  to  it.  'I'here  is,  of  course,  no  essential  order  of 
study,  and  many  valid  reasons  may  be  given  for  adopting  the 
lattt'r  course. 

According  to  the  former  ])lan.  Ix'ginning  witli  one  end  of 
the  globe  wa(ei--partiiig,  we  consider  the  land-masses  in  the 
su<'cessioii  of  position  to  the  other  end.  The  Cape  Horn  end 
is  selected  rather  than  that  of  (!ood  Hope,  becnuse  South 
America  in  outline,  relief  and  rehitioii  to  winds  is  the  most 
rcguhir  of  ;ill  the  coiit incuts,  Africa  lieing  (exceiit  in  outline) 
much  more  irrcgulni'.  North  America,  next  in  order,  is 
nierelva  repetition  in  structure  of  its  soutlieni  neighbor,  with 
a  few  moi-e  important  <let;iils  of  coast-line,  relief  and  drain- 
age. Asia  then  rei)eats  the  structure  more  in  detnil.  and  with 
the  north  nnd  south  trend  of  axis  replaced  by  the  east  and 
west. 


777 /•;  ((>xtim:\t 


1.")1 


Kuropc  j)rcst'iit^  not  (.)iily  the  |H'ciili;iiMt v  n\  Lii'i'nt  ii\'T- 
l):i>!ii-  (Mittiii:;-  tliKiiiLiii  tin-  I'l  iiiiarv  liiuiihiii'l.  l''.it  aUn  li,i' 
iiKi-it  coinplii'atcil  of  all  the  coa-^l-liiir^.  In  ■^(■nri;il  term  aii'l 
I'l-lit't'  it  should  lie  (■oii>i(h'rL'(l  a>  a  [icuin-iilaf  iiiojrction  of 
A>ia  :  tVir  not  only  U  its  hiiihlainl  a  roiitinualion  of  tjic  [ilalraii 
of  Iiaii.  liiil  its  Lireat  plain  i>  niriTly  an  fXli-n--ioii  of  ^i^^•l■ia. 
wliik'  lioth  -o-calU'il  continents  >liare  in  llic  -li)|ii-<  ot'  the 
C'asj)ian  Sea  lia<in.  Xeverlheless.  hrcai'^e  of  its  cuniinrri-ia! 
ami  hi^loiieal  iin[)oflanee.  Mmopc  i-~  I'li'itU'il  to  the  rank 
of  an  in'liviilual.  It  is  true  that  in  relief  it  contain--  tlic 
tvpi(;al  section  of  a  c(jntincnt.  luit  >o  al-o  .lo  nianv  ji'ins  (,f 
other  continents.  The  important  >tU'lv  i-  not  to  (Icteiiniue 
whether  it  is  a  distinct  continental  di\isii_in.  I'Ut  rathci'  to 
Uarn  it>  relief,  and  relate  it  [»ro[)erly  to  t!ir  other  land-ma--e>. 
Detorc  coii-iderinLi'  lMU'o[ie  in  detail,  -we  may  -tudy  the 
general  relief  of  Africa,  and  tliu-^  coiii[ilele  i!ic  '^h^lie  \\-aler- 
paitin:!'.  Althou'^li  the  contour  of  the  ••hark  (  ontineut  ' "  is 
([uite  reunlai'.  its  sui'faee  i>  a  va-t  expan-c  k\'  anomalie-. 
The  relief  of  Au>tralia  need^  occupv  liut  a  few   le>-on-. 


( 'misi-IJ  i,r  Dr'iii'inij.  —  .Map-drawim:  i-  a  mean-,  iioi  an 
end.  and  ha-  a  hi'^iier  aim  tiian  to  train  pu|ii!-  to  c.px  .-kdM)- 
rate  map>.  'I'he  proper  teachinu'  o!'  this  iuipoi'lanl  lli'MiLih 
much-;d>n-cd  lirancli  proent-  an  exeellent  opiMirlunil\  U^v 
mental  dc\-, ■lopmeiit .  The  moti\"e  df  a  teacher  mu-!  'ieii-r- 
minc  hi--  incthod  ol'  teaching:.  — -u'ljeel.  of  (Miir-i-.  to  the 
law- of  mind  urowl  h.  I  )iffcren'-e>  in  meiinid  ;;-ii:i  liy  iu' i;e:i!c 
dil'fei-enecs  ill  motive.  A  teacher  who-i'  aim  i-  to  n^iaiii 
beautiful  co|iies  of  map>  will  natu!'all\'  pi.-.ni  ih^  \\..;,v  (|ii;!e 

differently    from    (^.lie    who    nje-    to    lend    |'n|iil-     io     ;(e.,llirc     eira)' 
Ci'lieepi-of     L;'enel':d    outlines   of    real    e.iuducnU.         'i'l;.-    !',i:-:ne; 

niav  he   allaincd    h\-  ti-acin-'.  l'\    n-m-    iii-' ru:m-ni -.   h\'  meaii- 


152 


THE   (HI  I  LI)    AND   NATURK. 


of  coiistnictiou  lilies,  niid  many  othci'  hiiidi'miccs  to  mciital 
growth  :  l)ut  the  hitter  deinands  acti\-ity  of  i)i'i'ce[)tioii  and 
imagination.  A  statement  of  motive  onght  thei'efore  to  pre- 
cede directions  for  presenting  Iht'  suhjeet  t(.)  ;i  class. 

The  following  snggestions  are  intended  to  aid  teachei's 
who  strive  to  mak'e  map-drawing  a,  means  of  develo])ing  tlie 
[xa'ceptive  and  iinagiiiati\-i>  [)owei's.  and  at  the  s;ime  time 
enal)ling  the  pu])ils  to  ohtain  a  connected  and  c()mi)acted 
body  of  knowledge  essential  to  the  higher  generalizations  of 
geogra[)hy. 

As  liealtliful  growth  results  from  natui'al  acli\ity  only,  the 
(.'Uiployment  of  any  de\'ices  which  tend  to  hinder  or  (aipi»h' 
the  full  and  free  use  of  these  powers  should  he  condemned. 
Realizing  that  their  [)U|)ils  failed  to  grasp  the  impoi'tant  jiro- 
portions  of  the  continents,  teacliei's  have  ti'ii'(l  U)  remedy  this 
(h'lVct  l»y  the  use  of  ••  const  ruction  lines,"  thereby  negl(>cting 
the  opportunity  to  develop  powci'  t(.)  perceive  genei'al  foi'ui. 
This  is  analogous  to  gi\-ing  delinitions  of  natui'al  forms  of 
land  and  water.  inste;id  of  leading  the  [)up>ils  to  olisi^rct  the 
real  forms,  and  (lisi'orfr  their  delinitions. 

('onstructioii  lines  are  gciiei'al  contours  reduced  to  mathe- 
matics, and  enable  the  class  to  con^triK-t  upon  paper,  by 
supplied  measui'cmeiits.  thai  wliidi  should  be  constructed  in 
the  mind  by  re[>eate(l  acts  ol'  perception  and  iudgment.  Tlie 
mind  moN'cs  natui'allv  in  the  line  of  least  I'esistancc.  and 
that  whicii  il  can  rcpi'oducc  mcehanicallv  incites  lillle  if  aiiv 
activity  of  iudgment.  I'upils  mav  memori/c  the  measure- 
ments L;i\in.  but  that  will  not  enhance  their  abilit\  lo  see  a 
new  contiin'iil  or  jiid'je  other  pro|  lorl  ioin.  If  tin-  mo1i\-e  is 
power,  they  shouhl  pereci\'e.  judiie  and  ex])ress  by  their  own 
elforts.  77/''  (mhl  cons! rin-l Ion  lims  n  rliihl  sJ/On/d  nsr  iirc 
siifli  (/w  //•'  (lisrwi't-s  in  the  Ti'l^il  u'<'  (fi  n:<:ti(>iis  af  voU.st-Ji  n(  s.  or 


Till:   ens  I  I s  i:s  l<. 


ir>:i 


in  ITk'  trt'iKj.^  of  thr  iiriiicipKl  phitcinis  dull,  iiiDii i/t<i iii-i-'i mil's 
"■/lirh  fir- ri'i'  O-S  chief  ir,ili- r-^n rt i iiij>i    In    Hit'    iji'int    ri '■'  r-l,,i .^1 ,, s. 

Tlie  relative  directions  of  sueli  iiii[)ortaiiL  liiirs  may  reaWih-  l>e 
judu'eil  liy  the  [)U[iiIs.  if  tlie  teaehers  will  luit  allow  tln-iii  an 
o[i[»ortunity.  Such  lines  ilisrocr/-!  il  are  j"  r  .s''  e\i(lenci'  of 
clear  eonee|)ts  (^f  iieiieral  forms,  ami  the  im  li\  idiial  cffoit  lo 
discover  will  tend  to  lix;  them  permanently  in  nuanorv. 

Another  de\'iee  for  jirex'cailinii'  llie  cxei'ei-e  of  the  npaital 
faiailties  in  aci|niiinLi,'  distinct  ideas  of  continenlal  (Uiiliins 
and  [iroportions  is  known  as  '•  traeinu'  iiia[)s."  This  dues  not 
apply  to  the  employment  of  ■•  ontliiie  niajis  ""  {\<v  ••  lillinu  in  "' 
with  [»rodnetions.  states,  histoiical  >ile--  ele..  liiil  lo  llu'ir  n<e, 
or  rather  abuse,  in  teaehinii'  coastdine  dia\vin'_;'.  'I'iie  erroi' 
arises  from  mistaking'  the  meanini:'  nl'  the  piiiicijile  lh:il  ■■  A 
eliild  should  nevia'  'ic  allowed  tn  r-<'i'  a  wriMiu'  ftaiii."  and 
that,  as  he  eannnl  draw  coi'reel  outlines  al  lir-l.  lie  -liniild 
fnirc  llHan.  d'he  fault  is  nol  in  llie  prim-iplc.  Nut  in  JN 
apjilieat  ii  m.  as  lias  ah'ead\'  been  >lin\\ii  in  die  ciiiiiilei'  oii 
modcdiinu',  p.  l"'''.  Theliesl  effort  of  a  Hide  child  :il\\a\- 
a|iproximales  his  ideal,  and  to  him  is  nol  t hta'cl'oi'e  iinpiafn-;. 
It  is  merely  the  lan'_;naL;c  n\'  his  own  mt  nlal  pid  in  c.  or  i  !ie 
e\[ii'es>i(>ii  <A'  what  is  alread\'  in  lii^  mind.  ^\  e  ino(!if\  and 
Li'ain  eonee|ils  liv  impi-ession.  not  li\'  e\  jires-ii  ai.  'i'lie  l.iUei' 
adds  nothinL!,'  to  an  idea,  lait  onl\'  ^t  innilate--  ri'pentcd  .-ici-  .>!' 
perception  of.  and  compai-isoii  with,  the  exact  inpw  dm-  p'a- 
fectinii'  the  concept    by  added   impre->ions. 

If  we  hold  to  oiu'  molix'c  of  dc\"clopmi  nl  ol'  powci-.  w  c  need 
nol  supplv  anv  such  mental  (a'litcla  -  a-  ■•  tracini;  ni:i|--."  "i 
■•  eonsti'uetioii  lines."'  In  fact.  >lo\\!\-  Iiaein'_:  ;i  prine-i  oni- 
line  repeate(lly  with  a  piaicil  or  pi>intcd  -^ic!^.  oi'  ie!,iiin_:  the 
details  of  a  coa^t-line  to  men-nred  i  ■ 'ii-l  ined.  ^n  I'ni's.  rivets 
tlie  attention  npon    cons(>cu1i\-e  det:dK  widiont   once  stiimilal- 


154  THE   CHILI)  AND   NATURE. 

iiig  the  mind  to  grasp  the  general  proportions.  All  such 
(leviees  nialve  an  excellent  ''  bridge  "  over  mental  activity. 

A\'e  often  hear  it  argned  that  1)ecanse  cliildren  will  not  l)e 
required  in  future  business  life  to  sketch  co;!st-lincs  from 
memory,  it  is  tlierefore  a  waste  of  time  to  teach  them  this 
l)ranch  ;  and  that  })rinted  outline  nuii)s  should  l»e  used  for 
"lining  in"  with  pln'sical  features,  [ti'oductions  etc.  It  is 
diflicult  to  understand  how  such  an  ai'gumeut  can  exist  an 
instant  in  its  own  light,  foi'  does  not  the  second  condition 
utterly  disi)el  the  lii'st?  Do  tlie  exigencies  of  business  life 
call  for  the  construction  fi'om  ]nemory  of  physical  and  pro- 
duction ma[)s  n)ore  fi'cquently  than  of  contours?  Then  why 
sui)ply  the  latter,  and  I'cfpiire  pupils  to  make  the  former?  Is 
it  not  lu'causc.  in  one  case,  aliility  to  imitate  a  book-map  has 
been  made  the  '//'/.  while  in  the  other,  the  di'awing  has  l)een 
made  a  /iicuhs  of  directing  the  study,  and  riveting  the  atten- 
tion on  the  surface  forms  and  pi'oducts?  This  latter  use 
sav'oi's  of  good  teaching  ;  l)ut  tlie  former  neitlier  recognizes 
tile  (Mlucntiug  value  of  the  device,  nor  tlie  importance  of 
coastdines  ill  the  later  study.  Trinted  outline  nia[)s  doubtless 
save  much  time  in  studying  the  distriluition  of  |)roducts. 
countries  and  cities,  and  in  historical  worlv,  but  have  no 
share  in  tlie  teaching  of  s(>a-coasfs. 

The  only  rational  infiu'ence  is.  therefore,  that  coast-line 
di'a,wing  is  omitted,  and  outline^  majis  vvo  substituteil.  liecause 
a  knowledge  of  contours  is  iuilucd  to  be  unimportant.  Can 
any  thoughtful  teacher  eiitei1:iin  such  an  opinion,  and  yet 
recall  the  intluence  of  gi'eat  indentations,  projections,  and 
general  dii'cctions  of  coast-lines  upon  ocean-cui'rents.  conti- 
nental drainage,  cbmate  and  productions.  U)  s;iy  nothing  of 
their  historic  value,  and  importance  in  studying  the  intellectual 
development  of  nations? 


Till-:  coM'is i:\r<. 


lo5 


Or.  if  it  is  left  to  the  chilli  to  inil-i'M'  hi-  kiKiwlr.!-.-  nf  c,,!,- 
tours  I'l-oiu  iii'iiittMl  iiia|is.  huliIiI  wc  not  m-  icn-onnMv  fX|Mii 
liiiii  to  do  till'  same  with  rcuari]  \n  wW  nia])  kiii  iw  IcI-c.  .-iiiM 
thriTt'orc  ilo  away  with  all  iiiap-flrawiiiL;  :  >ucli  a  plan  piv- 
smiics  tiio  iiiucli  upon  tlu'  (li->-i-i'iiiiiciit  aii'l  will  <it'  Tin-  rhlM. 
The  --liriu'lit"  imiiil  ihIli'IiI  thii-  olilain  a  -ihaihTiii'.;".  luil 
what  -it'  thf    ••dull""   ur  -inw  (Hic: 

'i'his    iinhi/n'/i'J  Jiiri/Jj,/  (,r   chilill-cu.    allh'Mli^ii    lint    I'cciililfd    ,,1- 

d('>ri'ilicd  in  our  ii>_vcholo'_iifs.  ha-  occuiiiid  a  \r\\  jirnuiimiit 
lilacc  ill  schnol-wiirk.  By  uiraii-  of  it.  |i!i|iii-  ha\i'  lu'cn 
tauLi'ht  to  >pcak  lluriitly  Iiy  >tudyin_i  tfi-imical  -I'aniinai'. 
to  rcail  liy  IcarniuLl-  the  A.  li.  (  '-.  {•)  ihink  nuinNci  I'V 
studying:'  liuiu'i--. — in  other  wnril-.  to  hit  nur  uiaik  li\'  aiir,- 
iuLi.'  at  anotlua'.  Hut  tlii-  Imm  inaaanu'  ti-adiiiu  Iim-  had  il- 
day.  and  the  slial'l  is  imw  Ikmul:'  siait  -traiiihl  I'nrihi'  marlx. 
'I"hf  fallai-y  nl'  -udi  work'  is  .-rlt-cx  idnit .  ll  i-  iniTclx-  an 
cxtiHUUc  to  which  a  few  tcachrrs  ha\'c  -\\un:i'.  and  niiin-  I'dk 
lowed,  in  an  altenipt  to  icinrdy  the  Lireat  e\  ii  i<\  leai-hiiiL: 
uni!n|Mirtant  detail-  'if  eoa-t-lini'S.  in-tead  ni'  jit-t  --\\ee|.lnu' 
thein  a-idi'  like  sn  nineh  iiiMii-h.  The  -iilijiM-t  iiee.i-  win- 
iiowIhl:'.  to  separate  the  ui'ain-  ol'  ii-el'iil  ku' iw  Icd^,'  tVnni  the 
ehalT   of   details. 

Then     let     n-    nnt      t'or-et     that     the    dc,  iee    he-t     e:/l.M|I:il,-d     to 

develop  [Hiwer  is  al-n  ill"  (inii'I\e-t  and  nni-t  t  h^i  ■,  .'i'.'a  ;i,e:ih- 
ol'  ae'piirinL:'  practical  inl'drniat  ii  in.  (»nrieadic-i  !\  ui  i\\  Ic  i,:e 
is  that  which  has  ijie  '.^reate-t  nniulicrni'  deal'  a--' ■■■::,';.  ■!.-. 
These  are  made  wluai  relatinn-  are  di-ci  i\iaed.  Such  o,-- 
eiixaa'v   here    iniplie-    ai-ti\;t\-    nl'    perccpiiini    iir    ;  laa'^n.at  :> 'ii. 

or  liotll.        A     de\-ice.    there]', HV.    which     ipiic,,ch-     l!:c-e     ImMh.iI 

powers,  is  he-i  -nited  tn  the  acpii-i;  i. .:,  .a"  n-.,-';;;  ,v  a.  i\\  ;c.  i-j,-. 
At  lliL'  same  tim.'.  the  activity  ni'  nnnd  in  tlai-  ac>|nir;n- 
insiu'cs  its  development.      I'rinted  •■outline  n;;ip-  "  can  ih'Nci' 


150  THE   CTIILT)  AND   NATUBE. 

supply  the  place  of  sketching,  us  a  iiienns  ot  leading  pupils 
to  gain  clear  concepts  of  the  general  direct  ions  and  features 
of  I'cal  coast-lines. 

TJie  Jrrsf  fev:  'iiidps  of  a  coutiiient  xhonhJ  he  copied  hi/  the 
[xipih  froiii  a  relief  casf .  sand  model,  or  other  representation 
of  the  surface  of  the  land-niass,  in  order  that  they  may  from 
the  ontset  associate  ('(.)ast-lines  with  ri'al  relief.  Contours 
are  not  mere  lines  to  he  learned  l)y  imitative^  drawing,  but 
are  the  medium  througli  which  we  may  lead  our  class,  in 
imagination,  <nit  along  the  world's  ocean  borders,  to  view 
tliem  as  the  limitations  of  those  portions  of  the  gi'eat  slopes 
that  rise  out  of  the  sea.  ('od.st-lii/ex  shnidd.  be  studied  from 
the  stuiidjxiitd  (f  coHtinetdal  .stopes  leather  tiian  of  the  line 
along  whicli  the  land  and  water  meet. 

Suggestions  as  to  how  work  in  map-drawing  may  be  profit- 
ably conducted,  may  perhaps  be  most  clearly  illustrated  in 
the  form  of  a  class  exercise.  Let  us  kce[)  clearly  in  mind 
that  our  aim  is  to  lead  the  pujjils  to  exercise  their  percejitive 
and  imaginative  faculties,  in  acquiring  clear  concei)ts  of  the 
coast-line  of  a  real  continent.  They  have  been  prepared 
for  tills  study  by  mapi)ing  tlieir  school  district,  and  can  now 
read  inops  I'endily.  We  will  take  foi'  our  illusti'ation  the 
coast-line  of    Xorlli  Antcrica. 

A  hii'ge  model,  showing  the  general  outline  and  relief  of 
the  continent.  li;is  been  pi-eviously  made  upon  the  sand  table, 
and  ]»laced  where  the  whole  class  ean  obtain  a  clear  view  of 
it.  ru|)ils  are  direetecl  to  take  places  before  the  blackboards. 
'J'his  enables  the  teacher  to  supcrxise  the  indisidual  work  at 
a  glance,  ^\'here  tlu're  is  not  enough  boanl  room,  the  class 
may  work  in  di\isioiis,  alternating  between  boards  and 
tlesks. 

As  no  construction  lines  are  to  l)e  given,  it  is  important 


TILK    I'OS  iL\  i:.\  1  ■-. 


1. 


that  the  tcaclifi'  so  direct  tlic  cxcrcist'  a<  Id  Ic-hI  tlif  [iiipiU 
U)  [irrlifiiil  the  m'lu'ial  (lUtliiic  only,  a^  a  lia-i>  toi-  ilic  :nMi- 
tiou  of  (U'tails.  This  may  he  ai-(-oiii[i'ii-htMl  I.y  allouiii::  ;it 
lii'st  just  sutHcii'iit  time  to  rcjirf-ciit  the  'jtiirrai  (lirrct ion^ 
ol'  the  coast-liiK.'s.  with  two  (jr  thiff  ot'  the  la.i-c-t  iiiilciita- 
tioiis  ami  proji'ctioiw  :   ainl  Ii\'  linliHinj  (/>.:  ,/,/.s.s-  /o  lln-  nl'ij/nil 

It  is  the  (aistoiiiarv  practice  to  ;i->ii:ii  a  iiiueh  loiiLier  [lerioil 
for  di'awiiiu'  each  of  th.e  lirst  few  than  foi-  the  suh<ei|iieiil 
inajis.  'I'his.  howexcr.  ciicoui'aLie.-,  the  stiiih'  of  ilelail-.  aii<l 
prevents  the  oli->ervation  of  L:('neial  form.  A  miml  that  is 
(•oiicentratetl  upon  the  re[iioi]iiction  of  >iicces~.i\r  'letaiU 
cannot  reach  out  to  the  relati\e  dii'ection^^  of  the  L^reat  oci-an 
iKjnlers  :  iieuce.  tlie  small  anii  unimportant  featui-es  jcmain 
isolated,  and  at  the  >ame  time  exclude  the  more  importan! 
li'eneral  <-oiieept. 

Ke\'erse  the  de\-iee  :  alh.iw  tlie  lea->t  time  for  the  lir-t.  and 
so  lead  the  mind  to  Lirasp  the  i^eueral  pioportioii^.  Let  llie 
period  he  so  short  that  the  eve  nni-t  swee[>  around  ihe  con- 
tinent, not  I'otiuL;-  an  in>tant  on  tlii'  minoi'  forms,  the  iiand 
fcdlowiu'j  rapidly  in  its\\ake.  A\dieii  the  uenei-al  outline  i- 
thus  learned,  allow  more  time,  and  the  details  will  readily 
assume  their  pro[ier  place-,  in  the  general  conioui'.  l-".\en  it' 
the  tea<-her  pi'cxMit-  at  lii-t  to  the  cla^-.  I'or  imitation,  maj- 
containinu' onlv  such  indciitat  ion<  and  pri 'iect  ion-  as  -hnuld 
he  memorized,  the  rapid  --ketchinu'  should  lie  \i^r<\.  to  duvet 
the  mind  to  the  relatixa'  directions  ot'  the  -ea''.ia-t-.  i'.y 
means  of  this  (le\-ice  we  do  awav  willi  the  '[Ua-i  iaii-.-ity  ti'i' 
construction  lines,  and  re<tore  to  the  chiM  t!ic  oppo-tunny 
I'or  mental  growth  hy  iiatiU'al  acti\ity. 

Thu-.  the  pu[ul->  are  informed  liiat  only  half  a  nriiutc  ( <  a- 
uhout   as   lon'4   as   tlie\-  can  ••iiohl   Ihew  la.atJi       ea-uyj   uiU 


158  THE   CHILD   Ayjb  MAT U BE. 

be  allowed  for  sketching  North  Ainerica,  and  that  they  are 
to  begin  witli  the  word  draw^  and  stop  wlien  time  is  called. 
The  teacher  directs  read;i,  and  every  eye  is  fixed  on  the  sand 
model ;  draiv,  and  the  sketching  is  begun  ;  just  thirty  seconds 
nioi-e,  and  time  stoi)s  every  hand.  Teaching  admits  of  free- 
dom and  ease  ;  but  all  training,  to  l)e  of  greatest  value  and 
interest,  should  be  conducted  with  [)recision.  I'upils  who 
did  not  coin[)lete  their  sketches  tried,  })rol)ably,  to  include 
too  many  details.  By  again  limiting  their  time  they  will,  on 
the  next  trial,  look  rather  to  the  general  outline.  Erase  and 
re[)eat  the  same  exercise  a  half-dozen  times  or  more,  or  until 
they  can  sketch  the  contour  readily  within  the  ;dlotted  time. 

Another  excellent  device  which  may  follow  the  one  above 
given  is  to  place  l)efore  the  pupils  a  large  relief  ma[),  and 
recjuire  them,  while  holding  a  crayon  at  arm's-length  between 
the  ma[)  and  their  eyes,  to  draw  the  coast-line  quiddy  in  the 
air,  and  then  immediately  rei)eat  the  foi'm  upon  the  black- 
tjoard.     'i'he  s[)eed  may  be  regulated  l»y  counting. 

'Jdie  exercise  may  also  be  ^■aried  by  (juestions,  referring  to 
the  relief  map  for  answers:   e.g., — 

Which  is  the  longest  coast?     Shortest? 

A\'liat  is  the  general  (bu'eetion  of  tlie  L'acific  shore? 

A\'hei-e  is  the  continent  l)i'oa(lcst? 

A\'Ii<a'e  does  the  Atlantic  ap]»roael)  nearest  the  raciilo  ? 

bi  wliat  ilii'cetioii  lias  the  continent  gi'catest  length? 

M'here  is  the  longest  slrij)  of  i-cgiilar  coast-Hne? 

^^'h(■l■e  is  the  Iar_;i'st  iiidcntatio})  ?     Next  in  size  ? 

^^'llicll  coast  is  Ihe  most  r<M;ular? 

IIow  niaiiy  lai'ge'  pcninsiihis  on  the  Atlantic  coast? 

What  plate;ni  (>\-teii(ls  parallel  with  the  I'aciiie  co<ist? 

What  one  lies  along  the  Allantic? 

'W'liieh  is  longer.  Uk'  Atlantic  (ji'  Ai'ctic  coast? 

\Vliat  angle  does  tlie  Atlantic  coast  make  with  the  Arctic  ? 


THE    (•nyTL\L'.\T>!. 


l.V.t 


III  L';u'Ii  succeiMliu'j,-  K'^^oii,  llir  work  i>\'  tli(>  fiirirc!-  --IkiiiI'I 
fu'  caiTfully  i't'\i('\vi_'il.  (iiw  (l;ii'y  iiriH'ticc  in  r:i['i<l  >lMtcii- 
iii'j.  liiit  as  furllu'i'  ilolails  arc  iiirluilnl  allnw  niorr  linic. 

Tlu'  >tuilv  of  S('iiar;itt'  (■()a>N.  *'.u'..  tlu'  Allaiilic  iiia\-  !■(■ 
liruun  after  the  Li'.'ncral  |)!(i[Miiliii!is  lia\-('  Iifcii  lirinh-  lixc^l  i-i 
iiund  :  liut  diilv  the  ini»>t  iiii|i(iriaiit  iu'difciiniis  anil  iu'lrnta- 
tions  .sliouM  ln>  incliulrd.  ( )n  this  roa-l  \Vf  uiijhl  im-lniU'  tin 
(inlf  <.)f  St.  I.awrmct',  X()\-a  Scotia.  (  lu'^a[»faiv('  I'.ay.  l^'loriila. 
(lulf  of  .Mexico  ami  Yucatan:  on  the  I'acilie  >i(h'.  ihc  iicuin- 
suhis  of  Lower  California  ami  Ala<Iva  :  on  tlie  Arctic,  ^nly 
Ilu'lson's  I>ay.  Tlie-^e  feature^.  to;_;-ether  with  the  Li'encral 
direc'tioiis  of  the  coasts,  will  proN-e  suUicient  until  the  [in|iils 
study  eonmierce.  ami  need  to  locate  ini[)orlant  harliors. 

^\dlen  one  coniineiit  has  Iieeii  studied  in  thi-^  manner,  the 
next  should  iie  learned  liy  eoni|)ari'-i  m  willi  it:  i.e..  cimipai'e 
general  fori. is,  areas,  leiiiiliis  and  reunlariiy  of  -.c.-i-coa-ts 
ete.  Sh(_)uld  it  he  found  nece>-ar\' at  anviiiiic  to  teach  otiicr 
.smaller  indentation-^  or  [irojections  hccau--e  ol'  t  heii'  ■^■coui';ii>hi- 
cal  or"hist(;rieal  \'alm/.  >uch  location  ^h(;uld  f'lllow  ijic  ahn\-i' 
exercises.  ^\dlen  the  ceiieral  form  has  hccn  learned,  llie 
iiiiiKl  can  readily  relate  aiiv  >iiiallcr  part--. 

The  true  te>t  of  a  iiu|>il"~;  knowlciliie  i>  ii<it  what  he  can 
sketch  with  a  copy  lict'orc  him.  hut  wiiat  he  can  reproduce 
readily  from  niemoi'y.  a-  e\idence  oi'  form>  lixcil  in  mind. 
Kx[)ei'itaice  ha^  -.laiwii  th.al  pu|)ils  not  onh'  '^ain  I'ar  '^I'catcr 
power  hy  ma^tciiiiL;'  eoa~-t-line>  hy  tiicir  nwn  ci'foii-.  tiiit  that 
they  al-^o  learn  to  draw  from  iiicuiory  ni'iic  ijMcAiy  and 
ac(an'ately.  .Moreo\-cr.  ea.ch  new-  (-(.mincnl  i--  a'-iiuircd  ui 
niueh  le>s  time  than  tlie  pi'eci'dinL;-. 

Instruction  as  to  the  character  of  the  \-a  rii  ■!:-  --I'.a-c:  .a-t -. 
whether  rockx'  or  sandy,  hi-li  oi-  1m\\  .  hc:ii;h:'i;!  c[-  im';'-,-i  ii  h- 
ful,  fertile  or  barriai.  uiav  he  ui\cn  in  couiicci  inn  \\:i;i  tiic  re- 


IGO  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

lief  and  climute  of  the  continents.  I-Jiougii  slioukl,  however, 
be  given  here  to  keep  the  minds  active  in  imagining-  real  sea- 
coasts.  The  mutual  influences  of  land  ami  water  may  best 
be  studied  in  connection  witli  the  winds,  they  being  the 
medium  l)y  wliich  the  continents  receive  heat  and  moisture 
from  the  occtui-currents.  llelative  directions  should  be 
learned  from  a  globe. 

(IKXKUAL    DIKKCTIOXS    IJKVIKAVKI). 

The  most  important  features  of  relief  are  the  I'xiter-partliKjii 
and  main  dopes  of  the  pi'incii)al  river-l)asins. 

1.  Use  sucli  devices  as  modelling,  reatling,  making  cross- 
sections,  map  (questions,  and  heliostat  i)ictui'es,  to  lead  to  the 
study  of  slopes. 

2.  Lay  aside  the  sand  as  soon  as  the  imagination  [jictures 
vividly  without  its  aid. 

3.  Teach  modelling  and  ma[)-drawing  as  means  of  devel- 
oping iterception  of  form,  and  judgment  of  proportions. 

4.  ^\.im  also  to  accumulate  practical  knowledge. 

5.  rui)ils  sliould  draw  from  relief  models. 
G.   Use  the  blackboards  often. 

7.  The  (irst  few  sketches  should  ])e  made  in  the  shortest 
possible  time. 

<S.  JMemory  sketches  indicate  how  imich  the  pupils  have 
actually  I'etained. 

[).  Xevci-  force  pupils  to  attemi»t  to  rei)r(>duce  majis  fi'om 
memory  until  theii'  concepts  of  grneral  outline  are  clear. 
Till  then  use  copies. 

H).  A\'i'itten  descri[)tions  of  sui'faces  :ind  eoast-lines  should 
be  occasionally  riMpiired. 

1  1 .  C(jasl-liiie  dr.Mwiiig  should  inniietliately  follow  the  study 
of  slo[)es  by  modelling. 


Essentials  of  Relief  and  0:itl'nr. 


ll')2  THE   CHILIJ   AND    NATURE. 

The  iiia[)  on  \).  101  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  featuvcs  of 
relief  and  outline  are  judged  to  ])e  of  sullieient  importance 
to  stutly  at  this  stdfje  of  the  v:ork.  It  will  he  noticed  that  the 
surface  forms  include  the  main  slopes  of  the  grt'at  river-basins, 
together  with  the  mountain-ranges  and  other  elevations  only 
that  serve  as  chief  water-[)artings.  ^No  attention  whatever  is 
paid  to  the  multitude  of  I'anges  that  merely  :dter  the  courses 
of  trilnitaries  ;  neither  are  the  numherless  slopes  of  these 
branch-streams  indicated,  exceiit  by  the  general  slopes  of  the 
basin. 

\  suHicient  number  of  the  large  rivers  are  included  to 
indicate  the  lines  along  wliicli  the  main  slopes  meet:  e.g., 
the  Missouri  locates  the  line  of  meeting  of  the  sloi)es  from 
the  gr(>at  westei'u  highland  and  the  height  of  laud,  while  the 
Ohio  marks  the  lower  edge  of  the  slo[)(;  from  the  height  of 
laud  toward  that  ot  the  Ai)[)alachian  highland.  AVher<>  the 
slope  fi'om  the  great  Ivocky  ^Mountain  waler-iiarting  me(>ls 
that  fi'om  the  Appalachian,  the  3Iississippi  makes  its  bed. 
Tlw,  relief,  then.  incltnteH  sn.di  featnri'S  <>itl//  <is  njject  the 
ijei/t'i-(i/  cintti iiciitdt  (Inii iiiiiic 

I'upils  should  ]»e  able  to  rejiroduce  readily  from  memory, 
by  modelling  nud  drawing,  the  physical  featui'cs  on  these 
majjs.  It  should  be  l)()rne  in  mind,  howi'vei'.  that  sloprs  should 
be  niaile  the  bnsis  of  the  woi'k.  and  that  the  lines  locating  the 
water-partings  and  ri\-ers  seine  also  to  determine  the  luain 
iuterlying  slopes.  This  ma])  also  illustrates  an  excellent  de- 
vice for  reviewing  the  chief  features  of  drainage  (piickly  and 
thoroughly.  (  ieneral  coiitoin's  should  lirst  be  sketchc(l  by  the 
pupils;  the  ])i'iiu-ipal  wat(>i'-par1ings  may  next  be  locate(l  by 
shaded  and  dotted  lines;  and  lastly,  the  lower  edges  (jf  the 
slopes  may  be  iudicatt'd  by  the  gi'eat  I'ivci'-beds.  The  whole 
woild  sli(_)uld  be  often   reviewed  in  this  simple  maiuicr.      The 


'lilt:  <()\  1 1  \ i:\  r 


]r,:\ 


arrows  are  placed  to  imlicMti-  llir  iiiijMtrtniil  cim----. ■>•!;,  ,ii< 
which  the  [)ii[)ils  shouM  liial^f  1  i_v  cutniij.  liiim:^:!  :iii^l  .-ii-i..-- 
thi'ir  iimuMtMl  forms.  Thi-rc  is  no  l.riicr  .1,.\  i.^,.  f.ir  lr:i''!:_;- 
to  >tuily  the  rrlati\'c  liriLi'lits  aiid  h'li'^l  !]s  ( .f  -|,.[m--.  t!.:i!i  hi 
make  and  draw  rr|»ealt'illy  thr>t,'  iflii-r   -fcliuu-. 

(jri>ii(iN-   I  .\    i;i  i.ii;r. 

Now  that  the  eoiitiin'iits  ha\i'  ln-rii  -tiidii'd  ;;-  ji:ir;-  I't'  ihi' 
_u'lo!if  n-liff  ;iiid  as  indi\"idiials.  t!ir  liiiiiiis  •ii''  )v;id\'  lo 
review  thr  unity  of  tlie  ulo'ie.  aii'l  (■la--il'v  i!-  '_:'-in'i;d  fc:i- 
tures.  'I'liis  will  h'ad  tliciii  to  o  iH'.-rix  c  inorr  cl.-nrjv  t'.n'ir 
relations.      The    fdjlowiip^-    (juestion-    ;ind    dii^ei'lions    /' ;•    '■',.- 

lt)'j>i!.-<  ]wj\-  >UL:'U'est  olle  wa\'  to  [ilt-i-llt  this  Wiillv.  All-Wrrs 
should  not  1m'  (ihlnined  iVdin  iii:i[i-.  liiiL  from  llicir  own 
CdUc'lits    (if    tlie    earth's    l-elicf. 


"W'hai  ci  inliiiciil-  hn'  v.  Iie|!y  in  ii'lh  o\    the  iMjua.turV   -^.n;''? 

Ahi'iil  what  I'art  of   tii.'  land  -iii'l'ai-'  ]'.■■-  -•■'.}':,  "\    li.:'  ■    jaaim-y 

\\'liat  land-  are  ci-M-scd  hy  tlie  A  I'd  ]<■  cii-cl^^  .•-      Ammiti  i<-? 

■Wdiat  <iiii'>  liy  eai'h  e.f   the  irMpir-? 

^^^]u■v,■  i-  th.-  mid<ll.'  <,t  di-  laed-,:.a-.  mI    ;1i-'  ul-'-'.' 

Find  die  middle  of   ih''  w  aha-  ar^'a. 

'Wdial  ciiiitiniait-  ar^'  t  rianu'alar  in  oai  :;!.'■  ' 

A\'Irit  ciip-.s  iMTdiui'  narrow  t"Wai-d  di-'  -■•'.[■'i:'-    ::■■-■': 

1  )i-aw  tlh'  Allaiiiie  ci  las!    1:1  a  .■~iii_l"  ma; ' :   I  a  ■  1 '  1  -1 ':■■-■>•  i-' , 

^\'hil■h  is  ill''  iiiu!''-  iia-''^ailar  ',' 

AVliirh  has  the  laru--'   iail-'iitad'';>  ■;'       Xi      ■;:,:.         : 

Xaaa'  th'"  L;reat  ]"Mii:i-aIas  i-xe-ialiir^'  -^  -a:  iie  .e'l  .    '     i  • ',  ei   •  1 

"What  ri  lilt  i  111  a  lis  lia\-.'  is!  a  ml-  1\  in--  mM'  dn.ar  -  lai  la.    i-'  !'•  >  i-t  - '.'' 

What  ronliiiiaital  cMa-t-liia-s  .■\i.ai.|  to  ■-.aid  ;  a  ■  a- ■' :  a-    i^  / 

What  eMutiiaaits  ha'.i'  -oait  ]  ifa-aus  -xa  aa ;  .1/ 

What  iilat.-aus  ima-'MS.'  ia  'd'.atiiai  t-rAara  ' 

What  hi^iihual-  tnaal  jara'h-l  l'<  th  ■  .■-vi-'-/..'  >  .-■ 


164  THE   CTIILU   ANU   NATURE. 

What  ones  at  right  angle  with  coast-lines  ? 

Which  is  the  broadest  plateau,  more  than  a  mile  high  ? 

Travel  along  the  plateaus  from  Cape  Horn  to  (iood  Hope,  and 
name  the  great  river-basins  on  the  right ;  left. 

What  plains  lie  east  of  primary  highlands?  riorth? 

What  secondary  liighlands  lie  parallel  to  their  primaries? 

What  ocean  has  the  largest  I)asin  ?  bed?  (considering  the 
Arctic  a  part  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Indian  of  the  Pacific.) 

W^hat  ocean  receives  the  largest  rivers  ? 

Which  is  the  largest  river-basin  on  the  globe?  the  long(!st  ? 

What  l)asins  drain  into  the  Atlantic?     I'aciiic? 

What  ones  slope  toward  the  equator?  poles? 

What  great  rivers  flow  toward  the  east?  north?  etc. 

What  valleys  are  drained  into  gulfs  and  seas  ? 

What  parts  of  the  earth  are  iidand  basins? 

AVliat  large  rivers  do  not  run  into  the  ocean,  or  any  arm  ? 

Name  the  rivers  that  flow  parallel  to  pi'iniary  highlands. 

What  ones  How  directly  away  from  them? 

WHiat  rivers  cut  through  primary  liighlands?  secondary? 

What  ones  flow  long  distances  on  plateaus? 

W'hat  ones  have  great  waterfalls? 

Which  have  formed  canons? 

What  rivers  start  from  large  lakes? 

What  ones  start  from  flu;  globe  water-parting? 

Xauie  the  lai'gest  three  inland  seas  or  lakes. 

What  large  rivers  have  brond  basins?  narrow? 

Where  is  the  largest  plain  in  the  world? 

What  plateau  contains  the  sources  of  the  greatest  number  of 
hirgo  rivers  ? 

What  rivers  have  formed  d(>ltas?  estuari(>s? 

Sink  South  America  five  Imndrcd  feet,  and  draw  its  coast-line. 

If  the  oceans  were  to  rise  one  thousand  feet,  what  ])lains  would 
be  submei-L;'ed  ? 

Draw  all  the  continents  as  they  woidd  IIkmi  appear. 


FOIICES. 


Iti. 


CIIAPTEK    XII. 

/.'.-FORCES. 
1.     M()TI(}\S    or    Tin:    LIUTII. 

liOtjifioii  (I'nd  lii'r()hit!/,ii. — The  rotnl iiiLi'  cai'tli.  rovolvinu' 
with  ineliufd  axis  arcnind  11k'  sud,  ^^ll<lll!<l  lie  tlic  l)a>is  o!' 
till'  study  of  licat  and  wind  limits.  L'lidrr  this  tojtic  we 
consider  rotati(.)n.  ht'causc  of  its  (MTt'ct--  in  ••  wc-tini:' "  all 
winds  llowinii'  t<jward  the  I'ljuator,  and  ••(•a^tini;'"  all  llowinu' 
away  from  it:  als(^  ri'volntioii.  li('caii>t',  liy  altci'natinu'  the 
lit'lt  of  greatest  heat  nortli  and  >(jutli  of  the  efjuator.  it 
occasions  the  monsoon^. 

The  })Uiiils  have  alre;ulv.  I)V  their  oli-er\-ation<.  lu-en  led 
to  a  i)artial  concei)tion  of  the  m'aiideiir  and  leLiiihu  ily  of  the 
mictions  of  the  hetivenly  oodie^.  Tliev  h:i\-e  al-o  :ii-i[iiii-ed 
tlie  (denientary  ideas  I'-^.-ential  to  the  intelligent  eonipiehen- 
sion  of  a  more  comiilete  ex[)htnatioii  of  the  I'eal  nioiion-^: 
for  just  as  the  study  of  hill-  ;iiid  \alle\->  enahje-  tlieni  to 
ima;i-ine  the  ;iTeat  watei'-iKUlin'j<  and  ii\ fi-lia-iu-.  -o  ilie 
ohservati(Mi  of  tin"  earth,  sun  and  -lai'-^  [nepaiv^  liieni  to 
com[»rehend  rotation  and  revolution. 

It  may  he  contended  that  oliser\-at  ii  in  in  i'l-elf.  if  iiimImtIv 
directed,  will  cnahh^  childi'en  to  di^i-ox^'i'  th^  eMiih-  line 
inotions ;  but  as  the  conclusi\e  evidenee  i-  found  only  in 
diflicnlt  mathomatical  coiniiutntion^.  t>l''-e,)[)ie  le '-'-rN  iili^u-. 
and  distant  [)henomen!i.  it  ^eem-^  leo'dlv  iv:i<ona'i!e  to  ixii-r' 


16(5  THE   CIIILB   ANT)   NATURE. 

such  liciuM'alizatious.  ^Moreover,  we  should  p;uar(l  carefully 
aiiainst  cultivating'  the  habit  of  drawiuii-  conclusions  from  too 
few  facts. 

Thus,  our  lielief  in  rotation  is  foundi'd  not  only  on  the 
visihlc  movements  of  heavenly  l»o(lics  and  the  fixedness  (  ?) 
of  I'olaris,  l)ut  also  on  the  delit-ciion  of  winds  and  ocean- 
currents,  the  fact  that  the  licjuid  ocean  conforms  to  the 
splieroi(hd  earth,  the  deductions  of  economy  of  motion  etc. 
I^ikewise  we  look  for  proof  of  re\()lution.  not  alone  to  the 
chaniiinu'  path  of  the  sun,  the  vailation  in  time  of  the  rising 
of  stai's.  and  the  difference  Ix'tween  the  solar  and  stellar  day, 
hut  also  to  the  movements  of  other  i)lauets  around  the  sun, 
the  ai)pareiit  anniial  elliptical  paths  of  the  stars  tlii'cctly 
conti'aiT  to  that  of  the  earth,  verification  of  astronomical 
predictions  based  upon  the  hy[)othesis  of  revolution  etc., 
tou'ethei-  with  the  fact  that  all  the  apparent  movements 
cannot  otherwise  be  explaine(l. 

\Vliile  phenomena  visibU'  to  childi'en  may  ]iossibly  lead 
a  few  to  iiifei'  the  truth,  such  infei'enees  would  nect^ssarily 
I'cst  on  very  meagre  details,  and  the  same  appearances  might 
be  caused  l)v  daily  reY(.)lution  of  the  sun  and  stars  around  a 
(ixed  eaitli.  for  these  reasons  it  was  suggt'sted,  in  the 
elementary  work,  that  ])upils  be  led  as  early  as  possible  to 
o1)sei'vc  from  the  standpoint  of  the  true  motions  as  exi)lained 
by  the  teachei'  (see  ]).  'M).  These  may  now  be  moi'e  fully 
illustrated  liy  a  tellurian,  or  the  eonnnon  device  of  the 
'•  eai'tli  in  a  tub  of  water." 

l'"ix  a  bright  oltjeet  \vv\  near  the  centi'C  of  the  watcM'  sur- 
face, to  I'eproent  flu'  sun.  ( )n  a  light  wooden  oi'  hollow 
I'ublx'r  ball  maik  tlie  ecpiator.  tropics  and  poles.  Place  it 
in  the  water,  and  weight  it  till  exactly  one-half  lloats  al)Ove 
the  surface,  with  the   axis  inclined   23^°  from   the  vertical 


M07I0XS  OF  Tin:  KAirni. 


k; 


position.  T-oc;itt'  nny  sjiot  in  llic  ooiliiii:-  towni'd  wliicli 
tlir  axis  |ii)ints.  and  tlifii,  as  tlic  iMilii  is  hiomiI  in  iN  nilnl. 
kfcp  the  axis  (liri'cU'il  always  towaiil  tiial  spul.  which  mav 
1)0  callt'd  the  ••  north  star."  Once  annuid  th<'  tuK  i-  a  Near. 
and  the  rotations,  as  well  as  the  rt'xoliilion.  mav  lalxc  phare. 
Teachers  shonld  not  deix-nd  on  experiiinaits  alune.  luu  ^-lidiild 
lead  the  [)ui)ils.  tin'ouuh  the  relati\e  niotiuu^  tliu>  shdwii.  lo 
tliink  of  the  real  spheres  in  tlii'ir  orliil-..  in  I'aet.  al  no  time 
shonld  these  small  olijeets  displace  in  the  mimls  oi'  ilie  (  las'> 
the  u'reater  lV)nns  of  which  they  are  the  I'eprestaital  inns. 

A\'ith  tins  home-made  telUnian.  tln'v  mav  see  ilhi^t  rated  i  he 
l)lienomen;i  they  lia\('  already  oliserxcd.  and  may  imdei'.^laiid 
the  canses  of  day  and  niuht.  and  chan'^c  of  >ea-"iiv  :  \\h\ 
the  sun  rises  in  the  east.  l>ul  not  alwavs  in  the  same  i)laee  : 
why  it  chane'cs  its  [)ath  a(a'o-<s  the  ^k>  :  in  what  pail  of  it^ 
oi'l)it  the  earth  is  mo\ine-  when  eaeli  sea-^mi  dpen- :  wliylhe 
sun  ne\'er  comes  directlv  oNcr  oiu'  head--  :  liow  il  w  tuild  apjiear 
to  m<)\'e  il"  seen  from  the  poles  or  polar  circles:  the  \aiia- 
linii  in  lenutli  of  dav  at  (]ifl  .'rent  (li-<t a uees  fidiii  the  eipial^  ■!  ; 
why  places  on  the  saine  UKaiilian  lia\-e  the  same  lime  \^'i  day  : 
why  day  and  niuht  ai'c  ahva\s  eipial  al  Ihe  eipiaioi'.  e!e. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  re|»eal  the  elemenlary  i|iie>l  i.  mi-- 
(|).  '.17  et  sc(p).  and  let  the  i)U[iils  di^eoNci'  reason^  Un-  what 
they  were  hefore  merely  a-ked  1m  oli-er\-e.  Thi--  will  pmvc 
intensely  interest  ini;-.  ineidiaifally.  a  II  en  lion  may  lie  eallcil  to 
the  fact  that  the  eai'th's  orliit  is  not  (piile  circular,  l^iil  di-iilly 
elliptical,  and  that  \\\o  sun  is  not  in  the  ceiiliv.  ImiI  in  oiii>  of 
tlie  foci  of  the  li^nrc.  This  \aiiatiou  iV"iu  a  circle  i~.  -.. 
sliiiiit.  that  the  lul)  rei»i'eseul-  nioi-e  ncaily  the  Inie  lorm. 
than  do  the  elliptical  liuui'e-  in  Ilieir  ImxiIx-.. 

The  lines  ujion  wdiich  the  rays  >hiue  \ci!ically  when  llie 
axis  is  at  its  greatest  inclination   toward   and    fiom   the  sun 


168  THE   CHILD  AND  NATUEE. 

may  be  easily  traced,  and  named  tropics  of  Cancer  and 
Ctipricorn.  Also,  as  the  sun  ligiits  api)roximately  one-half  of 
the  globe,  it  is  easy  to  locate  the  polar  circles  as  the  limits 
of  liglit  when  the  sun  is  over  the  tropics.  Tlie  lamp  and  l>all 
may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose.  A  few  simple  problems 
in  "longitude  and  time"  may  be  performed. 

Then  follows  the  study  of  hemispheres,  and  location  bj'  lati- 
tude and  longitude.  The  pupils  should  locate  the  "  prin)e  " 
or  rather  zero  meridian,  and  180°;  also  20°  west  and  IGO"^ 
east,  those  separating  the  hemis[)heres.  It  is  well  to  memorize 
also  one  important  meridian  of  cnch  continent  from  which  to 
estimate  distances:  e.g..  1)0°  west,  along  whicli  the  Missis- 
sippi River  flows  ;  (50°  west,  i)assing  through  the  middle  of 
the  table-land  of  (iuiann  and  La  Plata  basin  ;  20°  east,  passing 
near  the  Xoilh  Cape  in  Europe,  and  Cape  of  (iood  lIo[)e  in 
vVfrica  ;  1)0°  east,  in  Asia,  locating  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges 
and  crossing  the  middle  of  the  plateau  of  Thibet:  and  140' 
east,  in  Australia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  ^lurray  Kiver. 

The  tendenc}'  in  this  work  will  ha  to  tell  and  teach  too 
much.  We  should  rememl)er  that  we  are  only  prei)ai'ing 
to  teach  how  the  globe  is  heated,  and  what  causes  its 
winds. 

Cluard  carefully  against  wrong  concei)tions  being  formed. 
It  would  not  be  surprising  if  even  aftci-  long  observnlion 
some  pupils  were  discovered  thinking  that  the  earth  is  below 
and  the  sky  above  rather  than  surrounding  us  ;  that  we  dwell 
on  the  inside  of  a  ball;  tlinl  all  the  stars  are  overhead, 
or  that  they  "go  out"  during  the  daytime;  that  during 
the  night  the  darkness  readies  fo  the  stars,  instead  of 
I)eing  the  little  conical  shadow  of  the  earth  ;  that  bi'ight  stars 
are  larger  than  dim  ones  ;  that  tlu'  sky  is  a  dome  dotted  with 
stars. 


hi:. I  rixc. 


lt)'j 


n<'iil!t>it.  —  'J'liis  suhjiM't.  which  must  ])rt/( •»■'!>■  that  nf  w  in.!.,, 
\\\\<  lict'ii  phicc'l  after  the  stii'ly  nl'  -urt'acc.  as  the  rtl:ili\c 
[insiticiis  ot'  hiiiil-inassfs  ami  thcii'  wniuii-  rdit't's  cxfit  a  m-iv 
iiiarkcil  iiilhRMirc  oil  the  (li^trihiitioii  nt'  lirat  aiiil  the  dirci-- 
tioiis  lit"  isothcnii^  (.!•  lilies  of  cijiial  tnni  irrattiif.  Sn  maiiv 
aiiil  so  '^vvdt  art.'  the  uiodilicatioii-.  that  the  <'Xi-c[)t  ion^  aic 
iicai'ly  as  iinportaiit  as  tlu'  riiU'.  Thr  cliinatfs  (jf  l-airo[ic  aii'l 
Africa  arc  uikhI  ilhi^tratioiis  (.)f  the  \ahu'  of  stirlviiiL;'  ll.c 
iiilliiciicr  (jf  [lositioii  ami  surface  foruis. 

^W' cannot  locate  isotheriiis  until  the  distriliiil  ion  (,f  wiml-.. 
ocean-iairreiits  ami  rainfall,  which  greatly  nioilify  teiii]icia- 
ture.  Ikivc  iiecii  >lu(lie(l.  On  the  other  liaml.  we  cannot 
study  the  winds  until  wt."  ha\e  coii--ideicd  liie  Lieiieial  hcatinu' 
which  causes  the  circulation.  'l"he  two  inu-'t  llierefore.  in  a 
incasure.  lie  studied  toL^cther.  We  may  at  fii-i  unfold  the 
general  i)la II  of  hcatiim  :  and  then  when  the  uicat  liells  of 
atinosphere  are  circulatin;!' as  a  ri-sujl  nfii'ijUifj  -inil  rut'i' i^n: . 
we  may  coiisicler  the  ]ih\-.ical  iiilliiiaico  that  modif\'  this 
lieiieral  jilaii.  and  produce  corrt'^[M )mliiiLi'  chaiiL^es  in  the 
directions  of  the  wimls. 

Ivcferrinu'  aL^ain  to  the  elenienta,r\-  lc--~oiis.  we  lind  that  the 
pupils  h.-i\'c  already  oli^er\r(l  the  effect  ot'  ^olai  lieat.  duiiiii 
\arious  hours  and  season-.,  the  relati\c  iiiten-ii  \  cij'  -lantiiiu 
;ind  \'erlical  ra\s,  and  the  inlhicni-,-  of  ele\-atii  m  ;iiid  iicai  ne-s 
to  water  on  leiiiperature.  AppK'inu'  this  ivii'iwledue  to  I'p' 
li'lolie.  tliev  can  rcadilv  di>co\e!'  t  !iat  the  Im-Ii  icccixin-  \ .  i  :  ;- 
c.al  ravs  is  ho1te-t.  and  that  the  feat  'ji'aduaily  (h'co^a-.'- 
toward  the  poles,  save  where  |ilatcaii-.  -ca,  ,  ,r  (-tlicr  fc:i'ii>.'S 
inter})Ose  their  inlhieiices  :  aNo.  tliat  the  l(ai_;h  ol'  t',c  \\ar;ii 
Season  varies  with  di^tam-c  iVoin  iiic  hi  :ii-i  -  piatoi'.  I  '.,<  n  tac 
stu<lv  of  winds  may  lie  lici'im.  and  tlic  aio,  lifieat  ii '"s  ^i'  this 
general  lu'atiiej,  may  lie  noted  a-,  tiic  \\oi!v  pi .  i_i  i  -.-i--. 


170  THE   CHILD  AND   NATURE. 


The  study  of  winds  is  almost  wholly  neglected  in  our  com- 
mon-school work  ;  and  yet  no  subject  in  the  whole  system  is 
simpler,  or  fraught  with  better  opportunities  to  develop  reason 
and  judgment,  and  at  the  same  time  impart  more  useful 
knowledge.  No  link  in  the  whole  geogrni)hical  chain  sus- 
tains greater  Aveight.  On  the  wind,  Avitli  its  gifts  of  rain, 
(U'pend  the  great  valleys  for  theii  fertility;  a  slight  change 
in  its  direction  may  lay  waste  a  whole  continent,  arid  l)ury 
its  life  in  desert  sands  ;  its  breath  from  over  a  warm  ocean- 
current  may  give  to  one  countiy  peri)etual  s[)ringtime,  while 
otlicrs  in  tlie  same  latitude  arc  cond)ating  either  stilling  blasts 
from  a  desert,  or  cliilling  waves  from  a  i)olar  region.  AVon- 
dcrful  is  the  inlluence  of  tlie  wind,  —  pumping  the  life-bearing 
water  from  the  oceans  to  sprinkle  over  the  thirsty  soil  in 
obedience  to  a  few  simple  laws,  purifying  the  atmosphere  and 
oceans,  wafting  tlie  heat  of  the  tropics  far  out  into  the  regions 
of  ice  and  snow,  everywhci'c  seeking  to  equalize  temperature 
and  redeem  the  barren  land.  It  is  the  respiratory  system  of 
the  oi'ganic  globe. 

AVhy,  then,  has  not  this  important  subject  found  a  place  in 
our  course  of  study.  Ix'low  the  high-school  grades?  Is  it  not 
because  we  have  failed  to  disci'iminate  the  few  simple  laws 
that  account  for  the  (/cnernl  di rodion  of  its  How.  or  rather 
ha\-e  l(jst  sight  of  them  in  the  labyrinth  of  forces  that  serve 
merely  to  accelerate*  or  I'elai'd  its  movement,  and  cause  local 
dedcetions?  ^'ct  Ihcre  is  a  tlii'cad  b}'  which  we  may  retrace 
our  steps.  It  is  true  that  wliik'  surface  heating  and  rotation 
determine  its  genci'al  direction,  many  minor  inlluences  are 
also  at  woi'k.  Evaporation  ;  the  presence  of  vapor  in  the 
atmosphere  ;  condensation  ;   ex[)ansion  ;  the  location  of  great 


7.v/;s. 


(U'seil^,  iii()iiiit;iiii-walls  ;mil  <  >cc;iii-(Mirrt'iit>  ;  tin'  i'c!;it'\i' 
[iiisilioiis  of  hiiiil  niid  \v;i!i'i-  siiit':iccv.  t'tc.  — arc  f\cr  ai-tixc 
ill  inoilil'viiii:'  the  tt.Miqifi-aliirc  aini  wciLiht  nf  tlic  aliiKi-iilnTi'. 
tlii'i't'liy  ti'iiiiiiiu-  to  iCLiulalL'  till-  sj,'>(I.  .■iinl  tuiii  a-i'lf  thr 
wimls  tt'iii[i(>i';irily  in  i)laci's.  Jii  la.aiv  iii^taiicis  ilic^c  inilii- 
(Micfs  cDiiiitciacl  each  oUu'r  :  t'.u..  cNaixiratidii.  a  roMlin-,^ 
pi'ocfss.  iiKM'caxvs  the  wa'iu'lit  of  the  a{  im  i^phri'c.  Init  liif 
liroiliicl  dt'  \\i\<.  [ii'occss,  the  \'a[)or  in  >ii^[M'ii-ioii  (  ?).  diiniii- 
isiu's  the  wciuiit  :  ami  rice  ri-r.-iii  willi  cuiiilru^atioii  and 
ri'sultiiiu'  l(i>>  (if  vapor. 

.\s  ;ii'oui-a|iliy  has  to  do  rliidlv  wiili  Liriici'al  diiTct  ioii-  of 
llu.'  currents,  would  it  not  lie  licttcr  t<i  omit  tlic-c  minor  con- 
ditions tiiat  |u'o|)crly  iicloii'^  to  i)jiv>ics  :  i.)V.  at  nm-i.  it'  ;iii\' 
of  tlicni  arc  rc(juircil.  deal  with  >nch  as  paHs  of  the  \a-I 
machinery  of  motion  which  has  its  main--[iri]iu'  in  -o|;ir 
heat  in.:'  aii'  I  I'l  it  at  ii  m  ? 

Till'  ciimplexily  of  details  accomjian vinii'  the  stiidv  of  wimls 
has  forced  thi~>  useful  hranch  intu  urade^  hevoiid  tin'  |-each 
of  the  ma->cs  of  oiu'  childi-cii.  lly  limitiii'j  the  work  at  hr-1 
to  these  li'eiici'al  e;iu-c^.  Mnd  introdii'-iiiLf  at  a  latei-  [leiioil  the 
conditions  that  modify  -~i)cc(|.  it  mav  l>e  easily  adapted  to 
its  proper  place  in  the  -cimiec  i,y  com-e  of   ^tudv. 

Kveii  if  the  >uhjccl  is  ju.|-cd  too  dilllcnli  foi-  childivn  of 
this  c'rade.  rather  than  omit  thi^  im[iortant  >tcp.  it  would  lie 
far  better  to  [<  H  them,  with  a  simple  explanation,  the  direc- 
tion^ of  the  ti'adcs.  I'cl  urn-t  !'ad(  s.  mid  pi'incipal  nion-ocn-. 
lea\-in'.i'  the  rca-oniii'_^-  procr^-  t  ill  a  later  pmiod.  'i'J:c  rain- 
fall cannot  he  inlc||i--ently  >tudic(l  till  the  diivcii,Mi-  of  ihc-r 
c'rt'al  currents  ;irc  known. 

Ill  preparation  for  this  step,  the  pupiU  ha\c  Imm-u  led  to 
i»h>er\-c  the  lichtcrllnid  lloatiiiLt"  upon  ;  he  !:c;i \  ^  r  :  !!;chc;it- 
iirj,'  of  the  atmo--[)liere  hy  the  earth's  .-urface  ;   chan;^e  of  icm- 


172  THE   CHILD   AND   NATUBK. 

[)i'raturo  -with  clcvalioii  ;  une(]uul  heating-  of  different  kinds 
of  matter  constituting  the  earth's  surface  ;  tlie  tendency  of  a 
moving  body  to  '•continue  in  a  state  of  uniform  motion  in 
a  straight  line;"  liovv  the  globe  is  heated,  and  its  rotation. 
Only  such  belts  or  initli.',  of  winds  should  be  studied  as  t)ear 
moisture  to  large  tracts  of  land.  Local  winds  may  be  omitted 
till  their  localities  are  studied  in  detail.  Those  of  chief 
importance  are  the  trades,  retilrn-trades,  polar,  and  extensive 
monsoons  (see  nuip,  p.  17o). 

The  work  consists  in  leadinfj  tlie  ])upils,  by  questions  and 
drawings,  to  apply  to  the  gh^be  that  wliich  they  have  ab'eady 
ol)serve(l  and  learneil.  They  will  readily  discover  that  as 
a  result  of  the  manner  in  which  the  glol)e  is  heated,  tlie 
heavy  polar  aii'  will  How  along  the  sui'face  towai'd  the  equa- 
tor, becoming  gradually  warmer,  and  will  lift  or  lloat  the 
warm  air  of  the  torrid  regions,  which  will  then  flow  as  upper 
currents  toward  the  [)oles.  north  and  south  ;  also  that  l)ecause 
a  body  in  motion  tends  to  continue  in  ;i  straight  line,  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  will  only  gradually  deflect  the  polar  cur- 
rents as  they  cross  larger  and  lai'ger  circles,  on  their  way  to  the 
tro[)ics  :  ami  as  the  earth  rotates  away  1'rom  the  winds, 
the  '-lagging"  will  pi'oduce  the  effect  of  a  westerly  How. 
'I'hiis  they  infer  that  winds  flowing  towai'd  tli(>  cfjuator  are 
dellecte(l  to  Hie  westward.  They  are  then  told  that  within 
the  tr<)[)ics,  these  arc  k'liown  as  trade-winds. 

Ill  tracinu'  the  I'clui'U  U|)|)ci'  ciu'rcnts.  no  dilliculties  are 
encouiitei'c(l.  The  air,  in  rising  fi'om  the  cipiatorial  bt'lt.  be- 
comes coolci',  but  camiot  come  down  within  the  trojjics  for  the 
sauu'  I'casoii  that  }iapcr  or  Hour  will  not  sctllc  upon  a  regis- 
ter from  which  a  cun'ciil  of  air  is  rising;  and  as  the  Hour 
linallv  c(^)nics  down  just  bcvond  the  hot-air  cohiuin.  so  these 
cold  n|)per  (airrciils  often   reach  tlii'  surface  just  without  the 


M'l.XDS. 


IT:; 


h^opirs.  ;iii(l  (li^phu/e  the  iiohii'  wiii-l-.  liv  l!ic  -hiiH'  IhwdI' 
iiiotiiiM  :il>[)lii'il  ;iliu\\'.  these  wiiiiU.  which  h;i\f  nciiuiinl  vcix 
nearly  ihc  vrloeity  of  I'otalitiu  i )!'  thetorriil  zdih'  lnwanl  ihf 
ea>t.  will  iiio\-e  in  this  (lire<*t  ioi)  mnir  lapiilK'  lliaii  ilir  ian'l 
ill  the  smaller  auii  siuallei'  eireles  across  whirh  the\'  iiiu-l 
lliiw.  ('ui'reiits  tJtiwiiiL;'  awav  iVnin  ilic  e.|iialMi-  are  con--,.- 
(liieiitlv  (letlt-eleil  ti)  the  easiwa.i'!l.  \\'lifii  thr^c  laii'rriit^ 
reaeh    the   surface,    thev   are   kiinwn    a--    rctiim-lraile--. 

Tin'  u'eiieral  cir(ailatii  )ii  iiiav  then  i'c  ivihiccil  \n  tlu.-e 
siiii[ile  laws:  I-"irst.  si>iar  lieatiiiLi'  eaiHi--  a.  -iirfack'  lli>w  of  the 
atiiiosjihere  tiiwai'il  tlie  eiiuali-r.  aii'l  a  i'ctiii'ii  iiii|ici'  ll'i\\- 
(  wliich  iiflcii  liecoiiic-,  a  -ui'facc  (aii'i'cii!  IicnmihI  the  tiniiic-) 
toward  the  [miIcs.  Sccoiiil.  the  r<  ilalinn  i  if  i  he  caith  )  m'.  » liicrs 
the  effect  of  (letlecliii'i  the  farmer  lo  the  wc-lwanl.  aii<l  ihe 
latter  to  the  ea-tward. 

The  principal  ini  ulihcat  inns  [n  h,'  -tudicil  are  the  ni"ii-i "  .n-.. 
which.  a>  thcii-  name  implii--,  rc->ii!t  iVmii  ciian'_!e  of  -ca-mi-. 
'I'hc  pn|iils  ha\-e  alrcaih'  '  l!>eo\-crc(  I  the  cau-c  of  the  lainl  and 
sea  lii'ccze.  and  the  fact  that  air.  if  I'lve  to  mo\-e.  will  ai\\a\- 
lli»w  fi'iim  a  ciiM  toward  a  hot  -liil'ace.  d'hev  will  rcadih" 
iea~-on  that  when  the  -ini  i-  in  it-  northern  path  diiiiriL:'  oni' 
sunimei'.  tiie  lands  thi^  -ide  ol'  the  cipiator  I.e. Mime  <iipir- 
lieatcd.  the  atino-pheiv  lici-onies  iarelie.l.  and  the  emreiil 
tends  to  t  he  noi't  hwar.l  :  tiia*.  .  lnrin_;-  oin-  w  initM'  tlic  oppo-iie 
(ana'ciit  pi'e\'ail- :  also,  thai  the  cflei-i  i-^  n.it  -o  markc'i  hr- 
tween  two  water-surface-^,  a-  the  ilifleifne.'  ii,  i.^mpiiatinv  i- 
coinpai'ati\'ely  -ii_^iit .      'Idius   t  h.\-  aee.  unit    f.ii    \\\r    m-.i.-.H-n- 


A 


A 


liclwciai  A-ia  and  AlVica  (see  imiji.  p.  17 
Iralia.  aia'o^-  tjic  (inlt'  of  (.uine.-i.  ImMwcii  the  w.--!  .■...■i-.i. 
of  ('(aitral  and  >ou!h  Anuaiea.  and  finm  iii.'  ha-in  of  ih. 
( )rinoc(  I  to  llic  ^ca.  air  1  /■er  r^  /■■■-■'. 

'Idle  trader  of    ihe    lii.lian    ().'caii    ha\;nj    lie.ai    |;;n,,ii    in;. 


174  rilE   CIIILD   AND   NATURE. 

those  "season  ])roczos,"  it  is  plainly  to  l»o  soon  that  the 
desert  and  equatorial  re<2;ions  of  Africa  would  cause  a  flow 
from  the  Atlantic  and  CUilf  of  Guinea  toward  the  east  and 
north-east,  over  the  continent.  It  is  equally  evident  that  a 
heavy  cold  wind,  flowing  \\\)  the  ]\Iackenzie  valley  from  the 
Arctic  shores,  would  be  forced  to  How  toward  the  south-east  by 
the  western  highlands,  resulting  in  the  cold  north-west  winds 
that  often  sweep  over  tlie  lake-region  and  upper  ^Mississippi. 

.'>*.     OCE  lX-(  irjiltJCXTS.     {Sec  map,  p.  17-',.) 

The  study  of  ocean-currents  needs  occuiiy  but  little  time, 
and  yet  ought  not  to  be  ut'glected.  It  should  be  confined, 
however,  to  such  as  affect  the  climate  of  large  land-masses. 
For  the  [)i'esent,  we  may  limit  our  work  to  the  e(juatorial  cur- 
riMits,  and  tlieir  two  main  l)ranches, — the  gulf  stream  and 
Ja()anese  curi'cnt,  which  give  to  ^\\'slern  Europe  and  North 
vVmerica  their  mild  climates.  Tlie  i)rincii)al  polar  currents 
may  be  incidentally  noticed,  because  of  their  climatic  iniiu- 
eiice  upc^n  the  south-weslei'n  coasts  of  South  America.  Africa 
and  the  noi'tli-easlern  pai't  of  oui'  own  continent.  These  are 
not  so  essentiah  howevei',  as  tlie  first-mentioned  streams. 

Althougli  it  is  not  true  of  all  oceau-curi'cnts,  thei'e  is  l»ut 
little  doulit  that  the  e(|uatorial.  gulf  and  .Iai)aiiese  streams 
are  conti'olli'd  liy  the  iilcntical  forces  that  move  the  winds  in 
the  same  directions  along  their  surfaces  ;  with  tliis  modilica- 
tion.  h()we\er.  that  tlie  former  are  interrupt(Ml  ]»y  the  conti- 
nents. The  sp(H'(l  of  these  streams  may  be  lai'gely  the 
I'esiilt  of  the  winds,  but  their  general  dii'i'ctions  are  j)rob;iblv 
detenniiie(l  by  solar  heating  and  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

It  is  without  doubt  true  that  the  dire<'t ions  of  prevailing 
winds.  e.\cessi\-e  evapoi'atioii  within  tlie  ti'opics.  the  extreme 
saltness     of    e(|uat()!-ial     waters,     the     conli'j.tiration     of    the 


176  THE   CHILD  AND  NATURE. 

ooean-becis  and  other  causes  slioulcl  be  considered  in  a  more 
extended  survey;  but  our  work  Avitli  children  would  hardly 
admit  them.  As  both  of  these  ^•I'ea.t  fluid  coverings  are 
susce2:)tible  to  the  same  intlnenccs  of  heat  and  rotation,  it  is 
difficult  to  decide  just  lanv  much  they  afti'ct  each  other. 
The  effect  of  winds  upon  oct-an-currents  is,  however,  very 
marked  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  where  the  iMalabar  current 
turns  directly  ba(dv  upon  its  course,  and  flows  with  the 
monsoons,  within  a  few  (hiys  of  the  change  in  direction  of 
the  latter.  The  whole  Antarctic  drift  is  also  deflected  to  the 
eastwai'd  by  the  southern  belt  of  retui'u-trades. 

The  im])ortant  facts  to  be  coiisidei'ed,  aside  from  the  direc- 
tions of  the  main  streams,  are  the  temperature  of  the  water, 
i.e.,  v:hether  from  a.  hot  or  coht  zone,  and  the  effect  of  this 
U])on  the  tcMuperature  and  humidity  of  .the  winds  passing  over 
them  toward  the  continents. 

It  will  ])erhaps  be  sufficient,  in  supplying  this  link  to  the 
geographical  chain,  to  merely  call  the  attention  of  the  ])Upils 
to  the  fa(d  that  the  great  oc(>an-currents  havi;  the  same  gen- 
eral directions  as  the  winds  blowing  along  their  surfaces,  and 
that  such  curi'ents  divide  near  the  shores  of  the  continents 
against  which  they  flow.  Thus  they  will  study  the  great 
e([uat()rial  currents  of  l)()th  Atlantic  and  Taciiic.  correspond- 
ing with  the  trade-winds;  the  gulf  stream  and  Japanese 
current,  with  the  return-ti-ides  ;  and  the  cold  ocean-currents 
from  the  south  which  are  blown  against  tlie  west  shores  of 
th(;  soidhern  continents. 

4.      IIMSI'A  ri..     (Srr  tH(tp.  p.    /?.".) 

T'upils  have  been  prepareil  foi'this  step  liy  observations 
showing  where  moisture  in  tlie  air  comes  I'roni.  how  clouds 
are  I'ormed,  what  moves  them,  am!  wliat  condenses  them  in 


RAIXFALL. 


177 


tlu'  various  couilkions  of  rain.  dew.  snow  etc.  I'iicv  know 
that  liiniiiij,'  the  wai'ui  montlis  lirii:lit  ll.-i-Iu'^  of  liuhlninu'  aic 
iZi'iifrally  followetl  liy  i)ourin;j,'  rains  ;  lliat  \a[M)i-  will  condcn.-r 
n[M)n  any  snlistanre  colder  than  saturattMl  air:  that  the  in- 
visiliU.M'aiior  in  lireath  lu'ronics  a  visililc  cloud  wluai  it  couif- 
in  ('ontact  with  vi*rv  cold  air.  and  c\'fn  forni-  droji-;  of  water 
and  lumps  of  iee  u[)on  lieards  a.nil  elolhinL;  :  thai  iiirrea>e 
in  (deration  is  aeeoiH[)anied  hy  decrease  in  teinpeialuie  :  in 
shoi't.  the  tdenientary  work  has  [)i'e[iare(l  them  to  di-Ii'iliute 
rainfall  owr  the  iilohe  liy  the  ai)[ilication  of  the  siiii|ile  faets 
tliey  ha\e  oliserved. 

Knowing'  the  dire(/tions  of  the  wind-,  they  can  readily 
(leterniine.  liy  their  knowlediic  of  rrliff.  which  of  the  ^reat 
continental  >lo|ies  lie  in  the  paths  of  nioi-t  wind--  from 
the  si'a.  and  wdiich  ai'c  depri\'ed  (if  moisture  h\  intcr\'eniim' 
[)lateaus  (ir  liroad  land-ma--e>.  The  crroi-  i-  not  l.y  any 
means  rare,  of  teach in^j,' or  I'allier  telliiiLi'  tliat  the  rainfall  in 
ii'rcat  ri\'er-\'allevs  re-ult-  from  the  lli.winLi'  of  moi^t  \vind-- 
aLi'ainst  oi'  o\'er  the  cold  primar\"  hiiihland-.  r>nt  thi-  i-  only 
a  part-truth.  It  nniy  r('-iilt  tVom  liuiitninLi'.  mceiinL!-  cdld'a- 
(an'i'cnt--  of  air.  oi'  chaiiLit'  in  tiniperature  whih'  pa--inL:  o\cr 
lowei'  ta'iledands  oi'  niounta in-i'ii!i:es. 

The  >tudy  >honld  decide  whether  the  hiLihe-l  plateau--  lie 
lu'twcen  the  nioi-t  winds  and  the  \alley^.  i<r  on  the  lee 
side  :  foi'.  if  a  u'l'cat  (|uantit\'  of  \apor  tloat-  in.  it  will  he  cn- 
den-cd  liv  one  or  more  of  the  aliove  eau-e-.  (  )f  eoiii-e.  m 
veiy  hoi  (le-iM't  I'eeiou-  wduM'i'  thei'e  is  not  -nllii-icnf  niMi-tiiic 
to  saturate  the  air  ami  foi'in  cloud-,  and  wdieic  thcie  aic  no 
liiLih  plateaus,  there  can  he  little  if  anv  rainfall. 

The  two  Li'i'cat  de-iu't  lielts  cxtcndinL:"  aiound  the  'jlolie. 
under  and  a  little  licN'ond  the  tropic-,  are  ea-jl\  aci-iHiiitdl  foi' 
as  the  zones  upon  which  t|ic  winds  de-ceud  after  li-iii-   in  the 


178  THE   CHILI)   AND   NATURE. 

equatorial  belt  of  calms.  As  an  ascending  current,  the  air 
loses  its  rain  ;  but  in  descending  it  becomes  gradually  warmer, 
and  al)Sorbs  moisture.  Thus  the  middle  heat-belt,  moving 
northward  and  southward  with  the  sun,  receives  heavy  rain- 
fall ;  while  the  tropical  calm-belts  are  branded  Ity  such  great 
desert  tracts  as  Sahara,  Arabia.  Iran,  (J(^ln,  Kalahari, 
Atacama  and  ^Middle  Australia.  These  great  fever-sores 
are,  of  course,  in  many  instances  greatly  aggravated  l)y  sur- 
rounding table-lands  which  keep  from  them  the  healing- 
waters  that  might  otherwise  reach  them  in  local  winds. 

Other  conditions  affecting  general  distribution  are  ex- 
plained without  difliculty.  Thus,  owing  to  decrease  in  tem- 
perature with  distance  from  tlie  tropics,  there  uuist  be  a 
corresponding  decrease  in  evai)oration,  and  consequently  in 
rainfall.  Again,  the  surfaces  of  l)road  plateaus  tend  rather 
to  heat  than  cool  tlie  passing  winds  ;  and  even  when  not 
surrounded  by  liigh  mountain-walls,  they  receive  but  little 
moisture. 

An  excellent  i)lan  for  unfolding  tliis  subject  is  to  sketch 
upon  the  l)lackboard  a  map  of  the  world  on  jNIercator's  i)ro- 
jection,  sh<nving  tlie  princii)al  plateaus,  wind-belts  and  ocean- 
currents  ;  then  to  let  the  pupils  decide  lohii-li  .s7oyyr^s  are  open 
to  the  moist  irinds.  The  teachei-'s  work  is  to  mei'cly  direct 
the  reasoning  l)y  questions,  now  and  then  calling  attention 
to  the  inllnence  of  deserts,  ocean-currents  or  si'asons,  upon 
the  directions  of  winds  in  i>articular  localities. 

.T.     CI.I  M  ATI.. 

The  disti'ibntion  of  climates  is  merely  a  review  of  heating. 
winds  and  rainfall  combined.  'I'he  study  includes  temi)era- 
ture  as  affected  by  distance  from  the  e(piatoi'.  and  elevation  ; 
length  of  season;    trend  of  highlands;    direction  of  winds: 


(jlimatj:. 


179 


winds  I'lom  (l('S(M't.s,  occnii-curi'ciit-;  iiinl  icr-lii-Ms  :  iiimouiiI 
of  rainfall  ;  and  vai)<)r  in  the  air.  It  slioiild  lead  to  the 
studv  of  isotlicrnH.  or  ratlicr  liroad  Ixdls  of  iicarlv  cuiial 
t('nii)(.'ratiirc.  as  a  pri'paration  for  tlu'  dislriliution  of   life. 

First,  however,  tiii'  i-artii  should  he  rcx'icwc-'d  in  urrat 
nahiral  rc'Li'itjns,  rcciuirinu'  tlic  [iu[)ils  to  i'X[ilain  the  causes 
that  deti'rniine  cllniatc.  For  ('xani[»l('.  tlie  valley  ol'  the 
Amazon  is  assiu-ncd.  and  they  may  reason  as  follows  :  ••  it 
lies  wholly  within  the  tropics  and  in  the  [)atli  of  the  trade- 
■winds.  Its  snrfact'  is  mostly  low-land,  and  is  crossed  by  the 
e(iuatorial  rain-ludt.     Its  climate  is  therefore  warm  and  moist." 

Wdien  the  [)Upils  have  reasoned  the  [)rinci[)al  conditions, 
a  ureal  deal  of  su[)plementary  reading,'  should  follow.  I'se 
eveiy  relial>U'  lext-lH)ok  or  stoi-y  of  tra\el  availalile  ;  and 
when  a  region  has  lieen  thus  studied,  assiuii  it  for  an  oral  or 
written  lanuu.'iLi'e  lesson.  A  fter  the  whole  sm'face  has  heen 
thus  (•onsi<lei'ed.  let  tlu'  pupils  locate  lines  of  eipial  tempera- 
ture as  nearly  as  p<issilile.  ()nlv1he  principal  ones  shruild 
lie  studicfl.  ol'  sueh  as  limit  ^'I'eat  hells  of  vcjelat ion.  for  we 
are  now  lea<linu'  toward  tiie  distriluition  of  life. 

We  have  already  fomid  the  axcrau'i'  annual  temperature, 
the  length  of  the  waim  season  and  longest  dav.  and  the 
pre\'ailinu'  winds,  in  oiu'  distiiet.  We  mav  now  trace  the 
l)elt  ha\inu  neaily  tiie  same  temperatiu'c  around  the  ul'>he. 
To  illustrate  :  The  pupils  found  the  axci'aui'  temperal  ui'c  ot' 
their  district  to  he  h^M'\  A  luap  on  .Mereat' t"-^  pn  ijecl  ii  hi. 
showing  the  princi|ial  phv-ical  I'eatures.  is  sketched  nn  the 
hlaeklioard.  The  location  aiiil  a\'ei'aL!'e  Icuiperat  uie  arc  pri  ip- 
ci'ly  markeil.  and  then  the  i(ii!riie\'  ca-^twai'd  licjin--.  I'lie 
tcachei'  leads  the  way  with  nuc-I  i«  mis.  and  acccpN  im  an^wiT 
unless  accompanied  hy  a,  reason.  I'lipiU  cannot,  of  coui'se. 
determine   the    exact    line:   l>nt,    after   they  appi'oximatc.    the 


180  THE   CHILD   ANT)   NATURE. 

tetiehei'  should  verify  or  correct.  As  our  ;iiin  is  to  develop 
reiison  and  judgiueut,  the  questions  should  suggest  no  piut 
of  the  ausweis.  but  merely  direct  the  line  of  investigation. 
Only  tlie  cliief  inlhiences  should  be  considered. 

Thus  the  pujjils  decide  that  in  crossing  the  gulf  stream 
the  line  will  bend  quite  a  distance  toward  the  north-east. 
Some  think  it  will  I'un  nortli  of  Ireland  and  Great  liritain  : 
otliers.  recalling  the  shorter  days  and  colder  seasons  of  the 
North,  judge  that  it  will  extend  just  south  of  these  islands  : 
still  others,  that  it  will  pass  l)etween  these  extremes.  After 
they  have  discussed  the  principal  conditions,  the  teacher  tells 
them  that  it  runs  through  the  middle  of   Ii'eland. 

Then  they  decide  that  in  crossing  fiom  Western  to  Eastern 
Europe  the  line  will  move  southward,  as  the  influence  of  the 
Vv'arm  ocean-cunents  diminishes,  and  the  Al[)s  shut  off 
the  warm  soutli  win^ls.  Jt  is  prevented  reaching  too  far 
south  b}'  the  warm  return-trades  swee[)ing  across  the  eastern 
iMcdilerranean.  lUack,  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas  :  and  so  our 
line  is  run  just  north  of  these.  Appi'oaching  the  liighlands 
of  Ivislei'u  Asia,  it  will  of  coui'se  l)end  southward  again. 
Iveachiug  tli(>  .Japanese  cui'rent.  it  swings  almost  as  far  north- 
ward as  when  it  ci-ossed  the  Atlantic. 

I'hiteriiig  the  Cnitecl  Stales  about  on  its  northern  bouudai'y 
line,  it  dip-  I'ai'  southwai'd  in  crossing  the  great  wt'stei'u 
])lateau  ;  llien  returning  northward  as  it  enters  the  warm 
slopes  of  the  nppei'  Mississi|>pi  basin,  it  extends  almost  (lui> 
caslwai'd  to  our  district.  'I'his  single  imi)ortant  journey 
shous  what  an  excellent  opportunity  the  sultject  [)resents. 
not  only  to  develop  powc)'  to  see  I'elatious.  but  also  to  I'eview 
and  luilfii  all  th^'  jircft'ili ikj  stcjis.  Aim  to  keep  the  work 
within  tlic  gr;is|)  of  the  childi'cn,  and  wnit  foi'  them  to  tjm/r 
to  1  he  answei's. 


SOI].. 


n\ 


111  liki'  maiiiuT  (Ii--ciiss  the  cniHcs  that  \ary  iIh'  I'iih-  ot' 
U'l'caii'st  heat  (tlu'niial  or  licaL  fiuatm- )  frniii  llic  liiilil 
or  astronomical  cijuator.  'I'lu'  [uqiiU  know  that  tlii--  liiic  i> 
nuicii  Nvarnicr  than  ihcir  own  lalitu<lf  :  luit  tlu'V  caniint 
dctcnnint'  its  rxart  avurau'c  nor  do  tlicy  need  lliis  knowl- 
edge. 

Tract'  also  the  natural  lu'at  lioundarics  of  the  \ai'ious  liclts 

of    \-cii'ctati()ii  :    i.e..    the    tro[iical.    seini-t!'oiii''aI.    Icni[>eratc. 

cold-teni[)crate,  and  arctic.      It  would  In-  of  no  as>i-,taiice   to 

the  chililrcn  to  nieniorize   tlie   nic;tii   annual   teni[ieratures  of 

tluse  lines.      The   oliject    in    locating   >hnuld   lu'   to   r~tudy  the 

conditions  that  \-arv  the  lines  df   licat  from  llie   lines  <if   liLiliL 

usually  stmlied.      The   fonucr.    ln'liii:'  the    lia-^is   of   >tudy  i^{ 

di>liiliution  of  veuelation.  are  of   far  ;_ireater  \alue  than   tiu' 

latter. 

(■>.    sou.. 

Althouuh  a  \-ery  essential  [nirt  of  the  system,  the  >ludy  of 
the  di>tril'Ulion  of  soil  iiresciits  \tiy-  little  that  is  new.  The 
matei-ial  i>  at  hand:  wi/  ha\e  merely  to  luiild.  >nil-maki!rj. 
in  the  eleiiiciitai'V  lesions,  has  .--howii  what  a^ieiit^  are  at 
work  iin^iiaiinu  and  di-tiilnitinu  the  food  for  [ilaiil-.  'l"he 
liiipiU  can  miw  look  out  o\-er  the  whole  world,  and  locale 
\\\i'  j'i'/ii/i'  Villi, -^js.  reeei\ini:'  a  [ilentifiil  >U|i|il\'  of  heal  and 
I'aiii  ;  the  \\\'s\\vv  [Hist II II'  III i:ih\  with  le-^  nioi-ture  and  colder 
climate:  and  the  Inirrin  lrii,-ls.  seldom,  if  e\er.  \i-i'ed  \>\ 
rcfi'c-hiiiL;'  ^liowias.  Soil  i-,  to  he  studied  in  relalioii  to 
relief,  rainfall  and  ti'miieratin'c. 

The  W(U'k  under  this  hca'l  mav  take  the  foriu  of  coii- 
>tMicliiie'  maps,  showinu,'  the  etaieral  di--l  iT  m!  jou  of  tlie 
variolic  Lirade--  o^  soil  in  the  uoiid.  If  the  |>ie\i,.u-  >iili- 
jeets  have  Ik'cii  carefuUv  studied,  the'  [uipiU  can  ilo  this 
wilhoul   any  assi-tanee.      l'>v  the   icadiue---   with   which    this 


182  THE   CHILI)    AN  J)   NATURE. 

step  is  taken,  the  teacher  cau  judge  of  the  thorouglmess  of 
their  knowledge,  and  their  power  to  use  it. 

AVlien  the  maps  are  completed,  the  children  should  state 
their  reasons  for  apportioning  the  various  grades  of  soil  to 
the  particular  natural  regions.  Ability  to  construct  intelli- 
gently from  memory  soil-maps  that  are  accurate  in  general 
outline  is  good  evidence  that  the  whole  subject  of  natural 
geography  has  been  well  taught. 

JtJ'JVIEW. 

The  best  test,  perhaps,  of  the  power  of  the  pupils  to  see 
relations,  form  judgments,  and  apply  knowledge  already 
ac(piired,  is  to  reverse  the  eartii's  rotation,  and  lead  them  to 
determine,  with  as  little  aid  as  j)ossibk',  the  genend  etfect 
upon  the  winds,  ocean-currents,  rainfall,  climate  and  distri- 
liution  of  soil. 

AVe  may  now  understand  more  clearly  why  the  study  of 
relief  has  been  so  strongly  urged.  Not  only  have  we  made 
it  the  l)asis  ol  every  step,  l)ut  each  subject  has  also  led  ns  to 
a  clearer  and  more  intelligent  concei)tion  of  the  plan  of  the 
whoh'.  Although  we  (U'hiyed  long  enough  only,  at  first,  to 
obtain  a  general  \iew  of  tlie  arrangement  of  platenus.  slopes 
and  I'ivei'-basins,  we  slmll  find  tliat  now  the  i)icture  is  nmch 
moi'c  complete,  for  we  h.-nc  l)een  adding  to  it  and  viewing  it 
from  a  new  st;indi»oint  witJ!  I'ach  sueee('(liiig  stei).  In  fact, 
each  sui)jeet  was  merely  a  cnll  to  study  tlie  eartii's  sin'face  in 
new  relations.  Kelief  has  been  the  cynosure  of  thought,  and 
])y  keeping  it  ever  befoi'e  us.  we  have  now  climbed  to  another 
lieiiiht  from  v.liich  to  view  the  life  of  the  globe. 


ILA\TS. 


183 


CriAlTEK    XIII. 

C.-LIFE, 
/.     J'J.A.\rs. 

I)i>ii:ir.rTi(ix  of  vcuctntioii  should  l)e  studit'd  from  the 
standpoint  of  liotli  lioat-lielts  and  natural  rcuions  :  the  one 
Icadinu'  to  tlu'  uroui)in<>,'  of  idaiits  in  fsvvat  lu-at  lu'lts.  the 
otlun'  rcfcrrinu'  tlu'  faniilifs  nioix'  directly  to  tlicii'  apin'opriatc 
soils  :  the  one  recounizinu  the  unity  resultinii'  from  the  Lilolie 
form  and  solar  heatinii'.  the  other  I'esohinu'  this  unity  into  its 
;j,'reat  natural  parts,  thus  lirimzin^  the  distribution  into  closer 
association  with  sui'faee  features. 

I'reparation  has  ali'eadv  lieen  ina(U'  forl»oth  classilications. 
'rht>  pupils  ha\'e  diseo\-ei'ed  the  simi)le  Laws  that  reunlate 
l)lant  life;  i.e..  its  relation  to  heat,  soil  and  moisture. 
True,  thev  do  not  know  what  conditions  are  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  the  various  species.  Imt  they  have  oliserved  and 
studied  the  facts  essential  to  the  distrilmtion  of  the  ^^reat 
families,  and  ai'e  now  pre[)ared  to  locate  them.  Thus,  they 
]\now  that  su2ai'-("ine  and  cotton  can.  I)e  urown  only  in  sec- 
tions liavin<2;  rich  soil  and  a  louii;  warm  season;  that  most 
cere.als  will  ripen  in  a  short,  warm  summer;  tliat  nearly  .all 
\'arieties  of  palm  re(iuir(>  verv  warm  climate  ;  that  the  pineb 
thi'i\'e  in.  cold  reu'ions.  etc 

The  most  uuifovmly  dispcised  and  thoi'cfore  nio-^t  cha''ac- 
tta'istii-  i»lants  of  the   i'limati<'   helts  are   the   /;■''•■-•■.  and    from 


184  rilK   ClIIIJ)   AM)    NATriiE. 

lliein  the  zones  inny  l)c  iiuincd.  Tluit  between  tlie  heat  lines 
of  70  '  north  :uk1  soutli  (tropical)  is  often  termed  the  zone  of 
jxihiiH ;  between  70'' and  lio"  (senu-tro[)ieal) ,  of  everijreens ; 
between  (!0^  and  10'^  (temperate),  of  /lord  n-oods ;  between 
-lO"^  and  ."JlP  ((•old-tem[)enite),  ol'  piiw  or  soft  /.coods ;  between 
.')0'' and  the  jujles  (frigid  or  ai'etic),  of  .^hruhs  and  mosses. 
Of  course  the  chihh'cn  should  not  l)e  requu'cd  to  memorize 
these  temperatures.  They  are  stated  here  merely  to  illustrate 
the  manner  of  determining  the  natural  boundaries  of  the 
/ones. 

It  sh(Mild  b(>  l)orne  in  mind,  that  the  vcgetatitMi  of  any  belt 
may  be  found  also  in  regions  of  longer  seasons  and  higher 
annual  temi)t'ratun'.  Thus  maize,  found  in  temperate  cli- 
mates, growing  side  l)y  side  with  the  hardier  grains,  may  also 
be  grown  in  nearl}'  all  the  warmer  sections  of  the  earth. 
'J'his  accounts  in  jkuI  bn-  the  overlapping  of  zones.  The 
l)rinci[)al  limitations  tc^  be  considered  are  rainfall  and  length 
of  u-arm  season . 

When  the  general  distril)ntion  in  heat-l)elts  has  been  made, 
we  may  grou[)  vegetation  ui)on  the  basis  of  rt'iief.  That 
is.  we  determine  wiierc;  the  relief  of  eacli  continent  divides 
the  sin'face  into  gi'eat  natural  regions,  with  c(,)nditions  of 
climate  and  soil  favorinj';  the  growth  of  particular  families. 
'riiese  condilions  Jiavc  been  already  studied  under  rainfall, 
climate  and  s(;il  ;  and  there  remains  only  the  distribution. 

i\s  Www  ai'e  often  liai'riers.  such  as  oceans  and  deserts, 
between  simihir  regions,  preventing  the  dispersal  of  plants,  it 
happens  that  some  sections  arc  <leslitute  of  valualile  food- 
plants  (to  the  growth  of  wliicli  they  are  naturally  ada[>ted), 
and  I'cmain  s(^  until  such  pi'oducts  arc  transi)lanted  by  the 
hand  of  man.  I'upils  cannot  be  exi^ected  tc^  trace  the  [)lant 
families  from  their  centres  of  origin,  oi'  study  the   iiistory  of 


Flani  Refjioiis  «/  Ari.eriva. 


186  THE   CHILD  AND   N ATI! RE. 

their  dispersal.  Tiie  nuiin  work  should  be,  not  to  account  for 
the  present  distribution,  Init  to  study  the  conditions  of  heat, 
soil  and  moisture  that  adapt  the  great  families  to  their  hal)i- 
tats  or  floral  regions. 

Many  helpful  devices  may  be  used  to  aid  pupils  in  asso- 
ciating tiie  products  with  their  ai)[)ro[)riate  localities,  but  the 
question  of  Icm  they  are  adapted  should  always  precede. 
One  excelleut  i)lan  is  to  model  the  continents,  and  place 
upou  each  natural  region  some  part  of  the  characteristic  vege- 
tation. For  example,  u[)()n  a  relief  ma})  of  North  America 
place  some  I'ice  along  its  south-eastern  shores,  then  succes- 
sively northward  from  the  (iulf  of  ^lexico,  a  little  cotton  or 
cotton  cloth,  a  few  kernels  of  maize,  a  small  stri[j  of  linen 
cloth,  some  grains  of  wheal,  a  i)iece  of   pine  or  spruce,  etc. 

When  the  surfaces  are  thus  covered,  the  [)upils  may  sketch 
the  coast-line,  and  then  represent  the  diffcu'cnt  regions  of 
productions  by  coloring  or  siiading.  All  the  grain  lands  may 
be  indicated  by  yellow  ;  the  forests,  dark  griH-n  ;  the  grass 
lands,  light  green  ;  cotton  and  sugar-cane,  white  ;  tropical 
fruits,  red,  etc.  We  should  teach  the  distribution  of  stai)le 
or  valuable  connnercial  i)roducts  only,  as  the  work  is  now 
leading  toward  the  commerce  of  the  woiUl.  'i'he  production 
iua[)  on  p.  bsf)  indicates  the  general  distribution  of  the  fami- 
lies of  the  New  ^\'ol'ld.  I'upils  should  be  able  to  reproduce 
these  from  mcmoi'y.  The  same  regions  are  continued  across 
the  eastern  ln'Uiisi)here.  save  where  the  [)lateaus  and  ukjuu- 
tains  iuter})ose  graziugdands  and  mining  districts. 

?.     ANIM  ALS. 

One  of  the  most  poorly  taught  subjects  in  eonnnon-school 
geoginphy,  if  indeed  it  c:in  b<'  said  to  be  generally  taiKjlit  at 
all,   is    the    disti'ibution    of    animals.      It    has    Ijccome    mere 


A  MM.  U.S. 


is; 


iiU'iiKiri/.iiiLi'  of  lii'oups  (.■li;ir;ii-t(_'i'isii(,'  of  ilic  \aiiuu^  coiitiiiciit-^ 
and  siiialli'T  |i()lilical  ili\  i^inDs.  wilii  liulc.  il'  any.  a.llt')ii['t  al 
(lixDNc'iiiiL;-  llic  >-ini[il('  laws  thai  uxva-rn  llair  ili-prr-al.  In 
lo-iii^-  >iulit  of  conlt'ollinii:  intluiaircs,  ifachcr-^  lia\a-  fallen 
into  llic  riTor  of  Lirouiiinii'  aniniai>  in  [x  iliii(.-al  (li\i>ions. 
in^lcail  of  Lii'i'at  iiatm'al  n'uion>. 

In  our  tcxt-liooks  \vt'  Mcc  (jnc  iiidnrc  sliowiiiL:,'  tlic  cliarac- 
Irri^lic  families  of  I^iwoiu'.  anoilicr  of  A-ia.  aii'l  --lill  a  tliii'l 
uf  Africa;  entiirlv  iunoiiiiLi'  Uir  fad  llial  all  l-iuiuiir.  Noilli- 
crn  Africa,  aiii!  all  A^ia  rxce[it  lIinilo<laii  ami  I-"arllier  India, 
const  it  lite  a  ^inulc  faunic  rcLiion.  —  !.(_■..  ha  \'c  conn  non  charac- 
teristic faniilies.  —  while  \.]\^'  >ontliern  and  middle  [larts  of 
Africa  difi'er  e\"cn  more  wiilely  from  tlie  i'e_;ion  norlli  of  the 
Sahara  than  dors  luiro[ie  fi-om  Xoi'th  America.  The  -ainc 
coiiilitions  cxi-^t  in  tiic  ci'oniunu  in  the  New  W'oild.  the  naluial 
di\idin;i  line  licinuthe  hiuh  iilalean  of  .Mexico,  and  nol  the 
political  houndai-y  on  the  i-ihimis. 

In  fact,  no  coiilincnt  exce|,t  Australia  has  a  fanna.  iiceiiliar 
1o  itself:  and  this  Iraii--  to  the  icmai!s  liial  coiilin'-nls  aie 
natural  divisions  oi'  ihe  ;^l(}lie  land-ma--  onlv  in  >o  far  a- 
in;iiortant  iiadiral  features  ha\i'  heen  xheeted  a>  [.uliiical 
houndai'ics.  The  natin'al  cdntinenl.-  of  the  ea>trrn  hemi- 
sphere, a-  indicated  hv  })laiit  and  anima'  life,  races  oi'  man- 
kind. L;o\"ernments.  reliLi'ioii--.  -late-  ot  -ceiety.  and  all  "ilicr 
natui'a!  oiitui'ouihs  of  phy-ical  and  race  (r)  comliti,  in-,  arc 
.  I /'r /';v/,s/w  (  .  I /'rica-/:'"/'ope-,  hs/w  ) ,  Iviiiu  noith  of  the  uieat 
des,.|{  Kelt  and  plateau  of  Thilicl  :  S,,.'/h  AiV''-  >.  the  iv-i..n 
-onlh  of  die  >aliai-a  :  Imli".  -ouih  of  Ti.iirel.  im-hriiim-  die 
>tructni'al  proh  lULialion  in  l'"arihcr  I  iidia  and  >iiudiern(  hina  ; 
and  Aiisl rufio .  1  )i\idin'j.'  the  we-icrn  hcmi-phcre  at  the 
southern  ediit'  of  the  [ilateau  of  Mexico  into  N'urlh  .and  >outh 
America.,    we    separate    the    Lilohe    -urfacc    into   -ix    /m/////--// 


188  THE  CHILD  AND  NATURE. 

continents.  Nor  is  sueli  a  division  without  value  ;  for  future 
science,  whether  it  l)c  botany,  zoology,  ethnology,  theology 
or  sociology,  must  recognize  these  structural  limitations. 

AVe  can  arrive  at  an  intelligent  grou[)ing  of  animals  through 
the  study  of  climate  only,  in  its  effect  upon  the  distribu- 
tion of  food-})lants.  The  adaptation  of  animals,  by  their 
structure  and  coverings,  to  their  pliysical  surroundings  has 
been  already  ol)served  in  the  Elements.  Their  means  of 
defence  and  dispersal  have  also  been  studied,  together  with 
the  bni'i'iei's  tliat  prevent  migration.  Their  natural  limitation 
to  regions  producing  their  various  kinds  of  food,  has  been 
clearly  illustrated  l)y  the  study  of  habitats  of  species  in  the 
school  district,  in  short,  tlie  elementary  cpiestions  in  this, 
as  in  all  otlier  parts  of  the  sj'stem,  have  prepared  for  tlie 
disti'ibution  in  natural  regions. 

To  accomplisli  tliis,  we  should  first  decide  what  species  or 
families  merit  our  study,  either  Ijccause  of  their  commercial 
or  scientific  value.  JNIany  have  already  been  studied  ;  very 
few  need  l)e  added.  We  next  determine  to  wliat  I'egions 
tliey  are  adapted  by  tlieir  food  and  covering  recpiirements. 
Now  the  teuclier  or  l)ook  must  come  to  the  assistance  of  the 
l>upils  ;  for,  while  the  organization  of  certain  animals  adapts 
tliem  to  a  section  of  country,  they  may  not  occupy  it  for 
the  simple  I'eason  that  physical  liarriers  lie  between  it  and 
tlieir  ])lace  of  origin.  AVe  cannot  re;ison.  therefore,  that 
because  existing  conditions  of  a  region  are  favorable,  cer- 
tain animals  must  consecpiently  be  found  there. 

A  really  scientinc  study  of  distril»utiou  would  go  back  to 
the  time  and  place  of  origin  of  the  various  S[>ecies,  and  trace 
their  migrations  through  succ(>ssive  })eriods  and  changes  in 
the  glo))e  structure,  ^\'e  might  then  be  able  to  account  for 
sucli  facts  as  the  absence  of  horses  and  cattle  from  the  plains 


Axnr.iLs. 


189 


of  .Vnioriea,  at  tht»  time  of  tlit'  (•(jiniiiLi"  of  l",iu'0[n';ins.  altlmii^h 
the  condi'Lioii.s  were  so  f;ivor;Llilc  to  tlicii'  ilr\"i'l(i[iiiiriil  ;  <ii' 
tlio  (lisai)p(';u';iiict'  C)f  lions,  liorsrs.  camels  aipl  i'K'[ihaiits 
fi'om  till'  wotcrn  licniisplici'r.  where  foniierly  tliev  ni;mii-il 
in  li'i'eat  iiuiuliers.  lUit  this  <listril)iition  in  tiiin'  Ik-Ioiius  Id 
liistoi-iral  li'eolou'y.  ami  (.)iily  the  present  distrihiitioii  iii  ■'<j/Wi' 
to  ireoLi;rai)hy. 

()urwoi'k.  thfii.  is  rather  to  study  h(;)\v  the  u'l'eat  families 
are  a<lai(teil  to  their  homes  or  habitats,  and  the  natural 
barriers  of  climate  and  relief  that  limit  them  in  faunic 
regions,  than  to  aee(junt  for  their  preseiiee  there,  or  aii>enee 
from  other  lands,  whin'e  the  eonditinns  faxor  their  devel()[i- 
nient  when  once  tran->ji(irted. 

'I'he  jirineii)al  liarriei's  to  he  considered  an'  sueh  as  modil'y 
climate,  and  thus  affect  the  distiH  lUtion  nt't'nud.  e.u'..  I'hy-^- 
ical  features,  such  as  oceans,  deserts.  f.]re-ls  and  [ihite:iiis 
that  are  imiKissahle  to  members  of  the  fauna  ;  aUo  tiie  |)res- 
ence  of  other  animals  that  woiihi  ilesirov  the  new-comers. 

The  followinu'  groups  ot'  animals  are  bii-^eil  upon  the 
valuable  wi.i'k  of  Wallace.  ■•  (  ieo_;i':iphic;d  1  )i-~t  libnt  ion  of 
Animals."  with   such  omissions  ns  lis  :id:iptation    to   ehildi'en 

I'enilel'eil   ne(;e>sa  I'V.        The   liouudaiics   selected     cori'e-,pond     -o 

perfectly  with  important  physical  fe;itui-e-.  that  ;inv  cxplan.-i- 
tion  seems  mnieees-;arv.  Tin'  pu[iils  c;iu  icadilv  di-eo\er  the 
conditions  that  hax'c  led  to  this  il!\i^ioii  into  n:itin':il  I'l'Liion-, 
and  e:in  ^vithout  ijoubt  account  foi'  the  >ui)port  of  the  nieat 
families  in  their  appi'opriate  homes. 

The  portions  also  of  each  n.'itural  continent  which  \'aiions 
families  oecu|iv  mav  be  ca->ilv  traced  to  elimnte.  in  its 
ctTect  on  the  disti-ibiitioii  nl'  I'mn].  d'hu--.  in  ^\  i''  " r'isi.i .  the 
reindeer  and  fur-bearinu'  animals  nm-t  'i\e  in  the  iiorlhei'ii 
part:  the  horses,  cattle  and  sht'cp.    in  the  middle  and  south- 


rjO  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

ern  ;  the  buffalo,  camel  and  lion,  in  tlie  southern,  etc.  This 
distribution  in  l)elts  should  be  studied  as  carefully  as  that  in 
the  natural  couliuents. 

Distribution  should  be  studied  on  relief  maps  ;  and  the 
phy-sical  features  whicli  cliiefly  limit  disi)ersal  should,  of 
course,  become  the  basis  of  memory  of  location  of  the 
families. 

C'liAUACTEiasTK;  ouorrs   of   animals  ok  the  xati'iial 

CONriNKNTS. 

NoTF,.  — In  adililion  to  tlu'  following  list,  it  slioiild  ho  boriio  ia  mind 
lliat  lioi'scs.  catllc,  sheep,  swim'  ami  othci'  ilomi-stic  animals  a.rc^ 
now  found  o\rr  nearly  uli  parts  of  the  carlh. 

7.  XnrtJi,  America  (cf.  AfonraHht). — -rolav  and  brown 
l)ears,  whale,  walrus,  seal;  moose,  dou',  l)eaver.  otler.  fox; 
bison,  biii'-liorn,  black  and  '^v'v/.yAy  bears,  wolf,  i)rairie- 
dou'.  opossum  ;  tui'lvcy.  eaii'le,  duck,  li'oose.  [)rairie-hen  ; 
alliu'alor,  rattlesnake,  cochineal,  sponu'c,  coral  ;  salmon, 
wiiilclish,   m:u.-kcrel,    cod,    licri'lnu'.   oyster. 

l'.  Sniifh  Amprir(i  (^inrlinliiKj  dciifrdl  America).  —  Llama, 
alpaca,  vicuna;  monkey.  t;ii)ir.  peccary,  jaouar,  ant-eater, 
armadillo;  crocodile,  boa.  i'iiiana, :  condor,  rliea.  parrot, 
toucan  ;   innumerable  insects  and  bri^iit-colorcd  bii'ds. 

.7.  Afeiira^ia  {cf.  Xnrlli  Anuricd).  —  l*ol;ir  bear,  seal, 
wliale,  walrus;  reindeei'.  elk.  benver.  otler.  fox;  horse,  yak. 
c;iniel.  ass.  antelope,  (ashmei'c  ami  Aiiuora  ij,'oals.  sheep, 
lion,  leo[)ard,  bear,  wolf,  moulllon.  ixjar,  chamois  ;  pheas- 
ant, eagle  ;  silk-worm  ;   coral,  s[)onu('.  itearl-oyster. 


A\I^fALS. 


191 


4.  Suiidi  Africa  (so'ith  of  Di-^ert).  —  ( iorilla.  chiiniiaiiZiH'. 
k'nuir :  Hon.  leopard.  ek'[)li:iiit.  ciirtiffe.  rhiuoccrix.  hi|ipM- 
jiotainus.  zold'a.  qiuiQ'ga.  chiml.  gnu.  ItiitYulo;  crocodili'. 
jiyllion.  clKunck'on  ;  ostrich,  iliis.  tlaniinu'o. 

~).  IikUji  {tJip  Orii'iit). — ( )ran!j,'-utan  :  (_'k'i)liant.  tiu'or. 
li.'oiiaril.  Itt'ar.  a<s.  Imt'falo.  zclui.  swiin'.  rhinoceros  :  croco- 
dile, col'ra  :  jieacorlv.  pheasant,  parrot  :  silk-worm  :  number- 
less insects  an<l  licautiful  birtls. 

1).  Aii--<t i-iili'i .  —  Kanaaroo.  echi(lna.  oi'iiitliorliynchus.  wild 
dou' :  lyrc-liird.  ]iir<l-of-}>aradi<e.  aptervx.  cinii.  cockatoo. 
black   ^wan. 


Xo  (^I'eater  error  could  be  connnitted  than  to  I'cipiin'  pn}iils 
to  meniori/.e  lliesc  lists  of  animals.  k  is  not  even  neccssarv 
tliat  tliev  remember  where  e\'ei-y  aniinal  is  found.  The  aim 
should  be  to  i^i\-e  them  a  ii'eiieral  \ii'W  of  the  chaiacteristic 
animals  of  each  tannic  rcLiion.  It  is  impoitant.  liowever. 
that  the  habitats  of  the  chii'f  commercial  animals  should  be 
li\e(l  in  nhnd. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  the  pupils  model  the  dil'- 
ferent  continents,  and  place  some  pi-odud  or  picture  of  each 
animal  in  its  appropriate  reiiion  :  then  draw  the  same,  write 
the  names,  and  file  away  with  tin'  plant-map>  for  use  when 
studviu'j,' occupal ions  ami  commerce. 


192  TlIK  CHILD   AND   NATVllE. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

^>.-IVIAN. 

Political  or  civil  o-eography  belongs  to  histoiT,  and  comes 
naturally  luulcr  the  liead  of  movements  and  development  of 
races,  of  Avhi(-li  it  is  tlie  direct  outgrowth.  Tlie  order  and 
manner,  however,  in  wliie'.i  the  great  events  of  tlie  past  are 
at  present  studied  in  the  majoi'ity  of  our  schools  preclude 
tlie  pro[)er  development  of  this  imi)ortant  subject.  Tlie  vast 
amount  of  worthless  liistorical  details  that  our  pupils  are 
forced  to  retain  for  examinations  is  a  remarkable  illustration 
of  mental  endurance.  The  wonder  is  that  the  imaginations 
and  memories  survive  evc-n  as  mere  wrecks,  considering  the 
work  they  are  called  upon  to  jx-rform.  'J'he  highest  aim  of 
history  teaching  should  be  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  historical 
reading  l)y  giving  the  imagination  good  wholesome  food,  and 
sliimilating  its  appetite  in  the  proj)er  direction  ;  for  as  it  is 
fed,  so  will  it  linally  ci':i\-e. 

AVlieu  history  records  the  social  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  ii  })e()[)le  ;  when  pupils  are  taught  to  ti'ace  the  great 
nioN'ements  of  nations:  and  wlieii  tliev  can.  bv  their  previous 
study  of  I'clief,  follow  along  the  grand  stage  of  histoi'y.  rais- 
ing the  great  curtain  of  the  jtast  from  tlie  intercstiuLi'  events 
that  have  changed  the  face  of  large  poi'tions  of  the  world, 
■ — -then  will  an  appetite  not  only  be  (piiekene(l  in  the  right 
<lii'ection.  but  such  a  coui'se  will  also  liecome  a   b;isis   for  all 


nACF^ 


10:^, 


future  historical  readiiiLr.  ;ui<l  It-ail  to  the  inti'llinciit  ^tiiily  c 
civil  i:tMiL;r:i[i!iy  wiiicli  is  now  merely  llie  ineuiory  of  e\er- 
chanuing  political  l)r)uiitlaries. 


/.      1!   l(  IS. 

( ieoiii'aphy  and  history  >lioulil  uo  liarnl  in  liaiiil  at  e\'<ry 
stej)  ill  the  stuily  of  iiiankiiid.  In  fact,  it  is  iiii[io>sililf  to 
separate  theiii  unles>  we  eoiiline  tlie  former  to  tlie  >tii<ly  of 
presi-iit  (listriliuti(_)ii  without  atti'iniitiiiu'  to  lead  hack  to  causi^'S. 
'I'iie  [)re\aous  work  has.  howi/wr.  [)reiiared  for  -oiiiflliiuL:' 
hiLilita-.  \\'e  may  at  lea>t  tiaee  the  surface  and  climalic 
limitations  of  i'a<-es,  occupations,  commerce  etc. 

It  is  true  tliat  although  in  !iis  primitive  >l:ite  natuie 
[ihiccs  lu'arlv  as  much  re-tiaint  upon  man  a-  upon  the  lower 
animals,  vet  with  hi>  dcNclopiuu,'  power  he  :^radually  fi'ces 
him.-clf.  and  makes  hi^  very  hounds  hi-  -u|i|iort  aiKi  pioiee- 
tion.  l'"reeilom  i-~  the  measure  of  ci\ili/.alion  :  and  man  of 
to-dav  has  worked  him-elf  free  to  >uc!i  ;i  dcLirec.  lliat  ah 
thoULili  his  t'oiiiiei-  pri-oii-wall--  still  stand  in  the  i'o|-m  of  ^reat 
[ilateaus.  desei'ts  and  seas,  they  are  as  nionunienls  l,)  his 
enterprise,  and  a  L^uide  to  his  pa-I   mo\emenl-. 

Many  1rac<vs  of  this  inlhience  of  relief,  e-pecially  on  the 
lowei'  )-aces.  -till  remain.  Save  wIkm'c  the  white  man  has 
wedii'ed  himself  in.  Ivpiatorial  and  Southern  A  iVii'a  pre-cnt  a 
race  of  men  (piite  as  [leculiar  a>  their  fauna  ;  while  the  norlli- 
ern  shores  helouu'  to  the  Caucasians.  ^\u-ti'alia  i<  another 
marlvcd  illu-1  rat  ion.  As  we  apjU'oach  t!ie  hi'^hei'  types  ni' 
mankind,  howcxta-.  the  harriers  as  -uch  ui  adually  d'-appear. 
d"he  plateau  of  'I'hihet.  and  its  continuation  aloiej  liie  lliudoo 
i\oo-h  and  (  auca-us.  -till  separate  the  Mouuoiic  and  Indu- 
l'an'o|iean  races:  'hiit  in  Kns-ia  and  farther  Indiia.  the  limita- 
tions are  heiu'j  rapidly  overcome.      l-'.\en    ill    N.Hiii    Ami;ii-a. 


194  THE   CHILD   AND   NATUBE. 

the  white  race  is  pressing  along  the  same  lines  of  relief  that 
limit  the  sub-regions  of  the  fauna  ;  and  in  South  America, 
the  long  plateau  still  separates  the  two  branches  of  invaders, 
Spanish  and  Portuguese. 

What  is  true  of  races  is  also  to  a  large  extent  true  of  gov- 
ernments, religions  and  states  of  society.  Their  bounds  are 
almost  identical  with  race  limitations,  and  why  should  they 
not  be  ? 

Although  it  may  be  difficult  to  base  distril)ution  at  present 
upon  history  as  related  to  geogra[)hical  inlluences,  we  may 
easily  lead  our  pupils  to  observe  the  present  relations  of  races 
to  natural  boundaries,  and  thus  at  least  0[)en  a  line  of  future 
stud}'  for  them,  making  the  discovery  of  cause  tlie  basis  of 
memory  of  effect. 

If  the  children  have  ])econie  familiar,  in  the  elementary 
work,  witli  the  various  races,  tiiey  are  now  r(>ady  to  }ieople 
the  globe.  This  needs  oceui)y  l)ut  a  very  short  time,  as  they 
can  readily  memorize  locations  ujjon  the  I'clief  they  have 
learned.  All  boundaries  should  he  indicated  at  lirst  upon 
relief-maps,  and  from  them  be  transferred  to  [)aper.  The 
chief  aim  should  1)e  to  learn  what  part  of  the  genei'al  rt'lief 
each  race  ()ccui)ies,  and  no  time  should  be  wasted  in  the 
study  of  arbitrary  lines  that  are  at  any  time  liable  to  change. 

Whnt  odd  conceptions  most  cliildren  form  of  llu'  great 
j'eligions  of  the  world  !  ^Mei'e  mimes,  or  at  most  repicseuting 
to  them  only  the  ignorant  supcistitions  of  wicked  and  idola- 
trous nations,  instead  of  the  grand  outgi'owth  of  ages  <if 
investigation  and  thought  toward  a  lirst  great  cause.  A  few 
short  lines  in  the  text-books,  perhajjs  half  a  column,  aud 
these  hurried  over  generally  without  comment  or  explanation. 


<rO]'EUXMKXT.<. 


105 


constiintc  tlic  cliiM's  source  of  kuowUMlu'c  of  one  of  the 
<2.Te:it(.'st  farlors  in  the  history  of  ciNilizMlioii-. 

lJ('ino\-i'  from.  e.u'..  the  liisioiv  of  l-'.urojic.  the  ^rciit  cviMits 
tliat  have  I't'suUinl  frcnii  rcliu'ions  inoNcinciits.  aiiil  what  a 
lucre  skeleton  remains!  Sc[»arate  from  all  ancient  history 
the  lonu'  lini'  of  migrations,  wars  and  other  t'vents  arising- 
from  reliLiious  causes,  and  the  isolated  fragments  could  never 
he  unitcil. 

Ihit  what  pi'cparatioii  are  we  i:i\inii'  our  pupils  for  their 
future  readini;'  and  >tudyr  Wdiat  intere-t  ai'c  we  seekinir  to 
arou>e  in  this  inlerestiu'i  and  practical  work?  If  this  imixir- 
tant  suhject  is  to  lie  inclu'led  in  'jeoiiraphy.  instead  (A'  in 
hisiorv  where  it  properly  helonus.  it  should  lie  tauu,ht  as 
carcfiillv  and  tlioi'ouuhlv  as  nnv  other  part. 

The  work  suLiLi'c-t'Ml  for  the  lower  grades  should  he  Con- 
tinued throULih  the  hiiihei'.  'I'iie  <-entral  Iiuths  or  doctrines 
(not  ei'eciN)  of  eaeh  of  the  ureal  I'eliiiions  should  he  known, 
toii'ether  with  aiiv  |i"i'uliai'  foims  oi-  important  cci'cmonies. 
A  part  of  the  supplementary  ri'ailiuLi'  may  tend  in  this  direc- 
tion, and  prove  a  \-ery  intere-.iinu'  iiiiroducdon  to  these  ^-reat 
nations,  d'hc  mere  di-lrihutiou  can  iie  learned  in  a  very 
>hort  time,  a.s  it  ha-  heeii  sulijeeted  to  the  same  i)hysical 
intlucnces  as  races,  uox ci'umenl  s  etc. 


.'.'.    corrnxM i:\Ts. 

The  N'ai'ious  foians  of  u'ovei'innenl  should  l)e  di-^trihuted  in 
the  same  manner  a>  races,  since  the  former  lead  u-  to  >tudv 
merely  suhdi\isions  of  the  latter.  All  the  L^reat  nations  of 
the  world  I'each  out  on  iiearlv  everv  side  to  nat  ural  limit  at  !on<. 
and  these  should  hecome  aids  to  nieniorv.  I'upils  should 
trace  the  principal  features  that  sepai'ate  countries,  and  locate 
ehiellv  hv  their  means  :  losing-  no  time  in  ••  lioundinu  "  all  the 


190  THE   CIITLD   AND   NATURE. 

little  states  of  the  world,  or  memorizing  variable  artificial 
boundaries.  That  is  tlie  province  of  the  atlas.  Neither 
should  tlu'y  enter  into  the  details  of  small  and  unimportant 
governments. 

Capitals  of  the  principal  countries  should  be  located  ;  but 
we  should  not  forget  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  mind's  power 
of  retention,  and  should  therefore  seek  to  store  it  with  onl}' 
the  most  useful  and  practical  knowledge,  leaving  the  less 
important  to  books  of  reference. 

Following  the  subjects  of  occupations  and  commerce,  the 
governments  of  the  United  States  (see  p.  202),  iMigland, 
Ciermany,  France,  Spain,  Kussia,  Turkey,  China,  Urazil  and 
IM'rhaps  one  or  two  others  should  be  carefully-  studied 
))ecause  of  their  current  historical  value.  This  will  enable 
pupils  to  read  more  int(>lligently  from  the  news[)ai)ers,  —  the 
l)roadesl  and  most  relialjle  sources  of  information  among 
the  masses. 

/.    orcrr  iTToys. 

It  Ims  been  already  stated  that  oecupntions  among  civil- 
ized nations  are  lai'gely  detei'mined  ])y  the  possil)ilities  of 
nntui-al  production.  This  sul)ject,  therefore,  naturally  fol- 
lows Ihe  study  of  distril)ution  of  i);ants,  animals  and 
minerals.  It  was  thought  liest,  however,  to  insert  the  les- 
sons on  IJaces,  Religions  and  Governments,  in  order  that 
()(.-cupati()ns  ;ind  Commerce  miglit  l)e  made  a  means  of 
reviewing  tlie  previous  study  of  relief  and  lifc^  from  the 
st;ind-point  of  ])()litical  divisions  or  countries  :  and  also,  that 
llic  pupils  might  lirst  Ix'come  somewhat  familiar  with  the 
v.'ii'ious  milions  whose  work  and  connnercial  life  tliey  ijre  now 
alioni  to  sludv. 

As   a   I'csult    of    tiieir  i)revious    ccjurse,  they  can    I'eadily 


OCCll'ATlOX 


r.'i 


lorate  the  aiiricultura' rcuioiis  in  the  fertile  valleys:  the  Liraz- 
iiiL!;  tracts  on  the  higher  grassv  plains  or  plateaus  ;  the  imiit- 
inu'  u'rouiids  in  the  great  forest  helt  ete.  :  hut  the  iiiiuiiig 
and  manufacturing  sectitnis  requhv  aiMitiunal  attenti.;n. 

Mines  may  l)e  studit'd  in  conneetidU  with  the  ^triieture  of 
the  continents,  or  may  he  i)ost[)oiied  to  the  [n-e^cni  -uhjcct 
in  the  system,  as  they  are  not  essential  to  any  previous  step. 
Although  mining  reui(_)ns  are  gi'iierally  located  along  the 
great  lines  of  upheaval  or  fi'aeture  in  the  earth's  crust,  theic 
are  many  notahle  exceptions.  e>peeially  in  the  ea>es  of  coal 
and  salt  lieds.  \'ery  little  can  lie  done  in  the  <tudy  of  cau>e- 
of  location,  and  it  de\'olves.  therefore,  on  the  teacher  or  text- 
hook  to  tell  where  the  various  minerals  and  metals  ai'e  found. 
( )nly  the  [irineipal  mining'  jn'oducts  :uiil  localities  need  he 
taught  ;  i.e..  such  as  inlluenee  couimeree  or  manufacturing 
centres. 

The  location  of  districts  engaged  in  manufactui'ing  is 
conditione(l  hv  the  supply  of  coal  or  water-jiower.  facilitie> 
for  ohtaininu'  I'aw  material,  tran-poiting  manufactured  arti- 
cles etc..  and  pupils  shouM  he  led  to  di-cover  the  cau-~es  to 
which  the  various  centres  owe  their  iii'owth  ;  for  exam[ile. 
(ireat  I'li'itain  to  its  immense  heds  of  coal  and  ii'on.  ami  iN 
maritime  position,  which  made  it.  al'ler  the  \oy;eje  of  \'a-eo  ^\i- 
(iama  around  Africa,  the  marlvct  of  the  raw  mateiial  of  the 
world,  and  the  ctaitre  of  commercial  distrilniiioii  of   l-".ui'o|ie. 

In  presenting  the  suhject  of  oc(aiiiations.  a  production 
map.  ujion  which  the  political  hotuidai'ies  are  aNo  imlicated. 
may  he  shown  the  class.  The  products  may  at  hr-l  he 
revii'wed  liy  eoinitries.  the  teacher  sliowing  where  the  niines 
are  locateil.  I'upils  can  then,  without  any  dilliciilly.  iinme 
the  oc(ai[)ati()ns  of  the  various  nations  ^^'i  the  worM.  Thi' 
same  i-ilan  may  he   ado[ited   in   teaching'   the   proiluctious   and 


198  THE   CHILD   AND    NATURE 

occnpations  of  tlie  States  of  our  I'nioii,  if  indcHMl  sueli  work 
is  worth  the  effort.  It  seems  a  great  waste  of  time  to  train 
pupils  to  draw  from  memory  maps  of  the  United  States  sub- 
divided into  states.  Can  one  teacher  in  a  hundred  do  it? 
The  rehitive  location  by  natural  features  will  prove  of  much 
iireater  and  more  lastinii'  benellt. 

r>.     COMMERCE. 

Under  this  headinii'  pui)ils  sliould  study  the  chief  commer- 
cial centres  and  routes  of  trade,  together  with  llie  articles  of 
excliange.  The  latter  may  Ix^  easily  determined  liy  their 
knowledge  of  natural  pi'oductions  and  manufactures. 

llow  many  cities  ought  we  to  teach?  is  an  important 
(piestion  for  the  teaclu'r.  Need  we  teach  more  than  the 
great  centres  of  trade,  together  with  a  few  of  historical 
value?  Must  our  pujjils  striven  to  memorize  the  hundreds, 
yes,  thousands  of  unimportant  cities  and  towns,  merely 
because  they  arc  in  oui'  tcxt-l)ooks?  Has  not  tlie  time 
come  when  we  can  swe(>p  aside  fjiis  lubbish  that  has  long 
Iti'cn  imposed  upon  childi'cn  as  knowledge?  Can  we  not  cut 
down  the  list  of  important  cities  to  about  fifty,  including 
historical  and  capital  as  well  as  coiimicrcial  ?  and  does  not 
the  trade  of  the  world  pass  thi'ougli  about  one-half  tluit 
number?  Then  can  we  not  teach  the  use  of  the  atlas,  and 
s[)are  the  mind  all  this  lumber?  l'>x[iei-ience  got's  to  prove 
that  children  have  a  mucli  clearer  conception  of  the  counner- 
cial  world  with  tlu^  few  cities  llnnly  fixed,  than  with  the 
many  hundi'cd  floating,  or  nither  sinking',  in  niemoiy.  Lead 
the  pui)ils  to  discover  to  what  iialuiid  inllucnces  these  cities 
owe  their  gi'owth,  and  how  they  are  related  conmiei'cinlly  to 
the  sui'i'oundiiig  c<juntry. 

Uupils   should    ]<iiow    also   the   prineipid    r<*utrs    of    trade. 


(JOXVIA'SIOX. 


I'.tO 


TIk'sc  shoulil  incluiU'  ocean  routrs.  triiiiL 'liiics  df  railroa.U. 
lakr.  river,  canal  and  caravan  rontes.  I'lie  lenileiiey  in 
tiiis  work',  also,  is  to  leaeh  too  many.  A  dozen,  in  all.  of 
the  niori-  iin[H)i'tant.  well  reincnihered,  are  worth  more  than 
a  hinidred  va^nely  located. 

Now  the  ••  imaiiiiiary  tiips  "  may  lie  intelligently  taken  to 
all  [iar!>  of  the  eartli  :  and  iiU[)ils  can  reailily  tell  what  uoods 
arc  eX[iorle(l  and  im[)ortcd.  how  they  are  trans|iorted.  and 
Ity  wliat  routes.  I'.ut  more  than  that,  they  can  deserihe  the 
\ari(_ius  inhahitants.  their  homes,  di'os.  natnral  traits.  oi-(ai- 
[)atioiis  :  in  short,  the  social  life  of  nations.  'I'he  earth  has 
been  truly  studied  as  the  ••  theatre  of   human  actions." 

If  all  the  foregoing  subjects  have  in'cii  carefully  studied, 
the  children  are  now  ready  to  (h'.^'-ocer  a  delhiitiun  of  elemen- 
tary L:'e<jLiraiihy. 


((>\(  LI  SIOX. 

Shall  we  >av  to  the  chiMi'cn  that  theii'  journev  is  end(Ml, 
or  ju-t  bc^un'r  that  tln'V  ha\-c  leai'ne(l  all  about  this  woiiiler- 
ful  woi'ld  of  oui's.  oi'  nici-clv  how  to  s[naid  a  lifetime  of 
re>carch  and  tliiiiiLiht  in  its  >iudv?  shall  we  not  ratlici' sav 
with  the  wi-e  Newton.  ••  ^\'t■  lia\"e  bcai  only  like  (diildren 
lilayiiiL:'  on  the  sea-shore,  and  divcilinu'  (»ursi'l\-c>  in  now  and 
then  lindiu'j  ;i  smoother  pebbl,'  oi'  a  prettier  shell  than 
oi'dinary.  whiUt  the  ^rcat  ocean  of  truth  lav  all  imdiscovei'cd 
before  u>  "? 

Can  we  now  sweep  aside  the  dense  cloud  of  mere  names 
and  theorii's  that  obscure  the  beauties  and  woiidci's  ol'  a  liv- 
iiiLi'  mo\inu  natui'c,  and  >o  with  C'arlyle  humbly  ask  :  ••This 
izreeii  llowery  rock-built  earth,  the  trees,  the  mountains. 
rivers,  many-soiuidimj;  seas ;  —  that  !j."reat  deep  sea  of  azure 
that   swims   overhead  ;    the    winds   ^wetjiini:,'    throuuh    it  ;    the 


200  THE   CHILD   ANJJ   NATURE. 

black  cloud  fashioning  itself  together,  now  pouring  out  lire, 
now  hail  and  rain  ;   what  is  it  ?     Ay,  what?  " 

What  fulness  of  meaning  will  now  How  from  the  majestic 
lines,  — 

"  To  hiin  wlio  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Comniuuion  •with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  languag'.\" 

How  much  more  beautiful  our  surroundings  will  also  now 
appear  !  for  have  we  not  associated  with  their  familiar  forms 
the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  foreign  scenes  ?  What  pictures, 
what  memories,  will  rise  from  every  nook  and  corner  of 
the  school-district  I  ''Avery  sea  of  thought,  neither  calm 
nor  clear,  if  you  will,  yet  wherein  the  toughest  pearl-diver 
may  dive  to  his  utmost  depths,  and  return  not  only  with 
sea-wraik,  but  with  true  orients." 

The  pupils  are  now  prepared  for  a  life  study  of  the 
higher  relations  of  man  to  nature,  for  such  has  been  the 
aim  of  every  step  in  the  work.  Geography  is  the  trunk 
whose  roots  penetrate  tlie  past  philosophy  and  historj'  of  the 
globe-sli'uctui-e  and  man,  —  whose  bi'anches  rise  and  spread 
beyond  our  sight  in  the  realm  of  future  science,  and  whose 
life-giving  principle  is  eternal  law.  We  have  studied  the 
eaith  of  to-day,  that  we  might  better  imagine  that  of  yester- 
d;iy  and  to-morrow  ;  for  what  is  the  present  l»ut  the  eve  of 
tlie  [)ast  and  the  dawn  of  the  future? 


APPENDIX. 


GRADED  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Tin:  ti'iidi'iiov  ill  t'-arhinL;-  cjP0L;ra[i!iy  has  Im'pii  t(i  di-cai'<l  tin' 
unity  of  .subject^,  and  maki'  tlii',  ,-tu<ly  a  mere  vehicle  f<jr  civil  and 
natural  history,  just  a>  tlio  sri.Mici'  of  nuinhrr  is  now  niadi.'  to  lu-ar 
the  .'Hultiiilii'ity  of  i-olat'-d  l):i-in.-s  fni-ins  that  art;  forrt'd  into  <jur 
arithiUL'tics.  Jt  is  tin-  aim  of  this  cours«!  of  study  to  show  what 
constituti's  the  science,  or  -.■(^ueiice  of  suhjects,  au'l  a>si;^n  tln-ni 
to  the  different  ,i;ra.des  oi'  stages  of  mental  development.  This 
a^^ieuinent  ot  toi)ics  to  the  vaidous  classes  heiii-'  conditioned  by 
the  intelli^'ence  of  the  ]iu]iil>,  ilieir  natural  -iirroiuidines,  and  the 
amount  of  time  allotti'il  to  the  subji'ct,  it  is  evident  that  every 
course  of  study  must  ])e  llexiMc.  It  is  sincerely  hoped  that  this 
one  will  be  tr-ed  purely  as  .-u-eofive  of  a  better,  and  under  no 
circumstances  ha  slavishly  followed. 

Particular  attention  is  calle<l  to  the  t'ullowiu'j,- :  — 

(1)  At  least  onedialf  of  the  tirst  term  of  each  -rade  should  be 
<levoteil  to  review  of  such  sidijects  a^  form  the  ba-is  of  the  new 
st''})  to  bi'  taken.  This  not  only  ipiickens  the  pupils'  memo;:i's. 
luit  also  '^ives  the  teacher  flie  necessary  opportunity  tn  judm;  their 
power  and  knowled<_re,  and  to  .>tren;_;theii  weak  pnin;-. 

(2)  The  forms  of  land  and  water  are  to  b>  st  ;idi  ■■!  in  connection 
with  tin;  forces  at  work  u[>ou  them  (.-.'^e  Illustrative  I,. -sons,  pp. 
o2  to  TD). 

(3)  Too  e-reat  stress  cannot  be  hiiil  oi\  the  importan<e  of  kcep- 
iuL;-  th(!  reronls,  which  are  called  for  by  tic  I'-i-of  ;]ic'~t  iun-.     llach 


202  THE   CHILD  AND   NATURE. 

child  should  have  a  book  in  which  to  record  the  results  of  personal 
observations.  The  lines  of  investigation  should,  of  course,  be 
directed  by  the  teacher. 

(4)  The  location  of  the  important  countries  and  cities  may  be 
taught  incidentally  to  the  study  of  the  relief  of  the  continents,  if 
thought  best,  as  a  preparation  for  historical  reading.  Tlie  general 
location  by  natural  features  is  sufficient.  This  will  not  in  the  least 
interfere  with  the  orderly  development  of  the  course  of  study. 

(5)  The  study  of  the  United  States  during  the  wdnter  term  of 
the  eighth  grade,  as  well  as  the  "Most  Important  Ten  Countries" 
following,  sliould  embrace  chiefly  the  general  relief  and  contour, 
drainage,  natural  resources,  commercial  cities,  routes  of  trade  and 
forms  of  government.  That  of  our  own  country  may  include  the 
general  location  of  groups  and  individual  States.  Although  this  is 
the  grade  in  which  the  study  of  our  own  country  naturally  belongs, 
it  may  bo  advisable  to  give  a  general  knowledge  of  its  geography 
in  lower  grades,  especially  if  there  are  many  pupils  who  leave 
school  at  an  early  age.  Such  lessons  should  not,  however,  take  tlie 
place  of  the  natural  development  of  the  science,  but  should  be 
merely  introduced  as  incidental  work  in  one  of  the  lower  grades. 

(6)  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  books  of  travel  relating 
to  the  continents  studied.  Teachers  should  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  available  libraries,  and  suggest  good  books  to  the  chil- 
dren. Examine  upon  all  that  are  read,  and  so  encourage  pupils 
to  read  carefully,  and  to  remember.  Without  such  examination 
they  may  acquire  the  bad  habit  of  reading  for  the  mere  jiassing 
impressions. 

(7)  Leai'ning  to  cidl  inq)Oi'tant  current  events  from  daily  news- 
papers should  form  a  v(>ry  essential  part  of  the  civil  geography 
work  of  Ihe  higher  grades.  Tlu;  condition  of  the  nmrkets,  state  of 
trade,  and  exports  and  inqiorts  should  also  bo  noted. 

(8)  Every  teacher  shoidd  familiarize  herself  with  the  entire 
coiu'se  of  stiuJy,  to  know  the  work  on  which  she  is  building,  and 
toward  which  she  is  leading. 

(0)  Individuality  in  teaching  is  developed,  not  by  following  a 
leader,  butl>y  working  out  a  principle. 


COURSI-:    OF  STUDY.  203 

COURSE    OF     STUDY. 
(!1:AI)ES    1    AND    11 

(Sfc  Chapter  on  I'l'iinarv  Work  —  First  'l"\vo  Years.) 

(IllADK    Iir.  J.,,,,. 

Aidiiiini.  —  Coininoii  Forms  of  Lund  and  W'atv'r -11 

Color  and  Form •)•"» 

Plants  and  Animals 1'* 

Si-ason  Teaching i- 

I'oiMll t)"^ 

117///'/-. — Conditions  of  \\'ater,  /('/  /:".'yK /■////( /(/ "^'i 

Stories  of  Kaees 11>> 

Season  'JVachiiig \- 

I'oem IIS 

SjirliKj.  —  FA)rni>  of    T^and   and    \\  atei-,    irith    \\';ifer    llowing 

over  the  Land M' 

Siories  of  llaci'. 11> 

I'lants  and  .\nimals lO 

Sea-on  TeaehinL;' 1- 

I'oem (iS 

CKADI-:    1\'. 
Autuiiin.  — F^onii>   of    Land    and    W'atei-,    irilh    \\'ater   llMwiiej; 

IJiron-li  the  Soil,  and  Sdil-makin- ^i' 

( 'olor  and  I'"orm -'lH 

Common  .M  ineral.s           11 

Sea->on  TeatdniiL;' I'J 

roem (i^ 

W'iiih  r.--- \\y.  hii  I'..ri,rniiiri,l >!t 

\\'ater  ill  the  Air >:> 

Storie-,  of  Kiii'es  and  I.'.'li-ions 1  1  ■> 

Season  Teaching \'l 

Tocm US 


204  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Page 
Sprhuj.  —  Forms  of  Land  and   Water,   icith  Modelling  and 

Drawing  the  District .  72 

Apparent  Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth 97 

Occnpations  and  Commerce 117 

Plants,  Animals  and  Minerals 40 

Season  Teaching 42 

Poem 68 


GRADE  V. 

Autumn.  —  Thorough  Review  of  Previous  Work. 

The  Globe .     T 137 

Begin  Records  of  Climate 102 

Begin   Records   of    Apparent   ^lotions   of    Sun,    ]\Ioon, 

Stars  etc 04 

Daily  News 2u2 

Poem 08 


Wijifer.  —  South  America.      General  Relief  and  Outline   .      .  140 

Records  of  Climate 102 

Records  of  Sun,  ^loon.  Stars  etc 94 

Stories  of  Races  and  Religions 118 

Govei'umenls 121 

Daily  Xews 202 

Poem 08 


Sjjrhif/.  - — Noi'th    Amei'ica    and    Asia,    compare    with    South 

America 142 

Records  of  Climat(! 1()2 

Records  of  Sun,  Moon,  Stars  etc !)4 

])(!gin  Records  of  Plants  and  Animals 100 

])aily  News 202 

Poenr 08 


COURSE   OF  STUDY.  205 

GRADE   Vr.  1  Aut 
Autumn.  —  Review,  and  Kuropc     ('oni[iare  with  Snuth  Anici'- 

ica,  North  America  and  Asia 1 12 

Records  of  Plants  and  Animals Itn; 

Daily  News -tn' 

Poem OS 

Whiter.  —  Africa   and   Australia.      Compare    with    all    oilifr 

continents 112 

Pieview  Relief  of  Globe lt>j 

Incidental   Lessons  on  Location  of  Inijiortant  CountrJ"> 

and  Cities 21 12 

Records  of  Plants  and  Animals iDrl 

Daily  News 2o2 

Poem 08 

Spring. — Motions  of  the  Kajth 10.") 

Rmiew  Ail' SO 

Winds  of  the  Globe 17t) 

Daily  News 2o2 

Poem 0-^ 

(;i;aI)K  vii. 

Autiunn.  —  Review  Pu'licf  and  \\'inds  (/f  (Hob.' \:\~ 

Ocean  Curn'nts 171 

Review  Water  in  the  Air  and  Cliniat" >;'> 

Di>tribution  of  Rainfall  and  Climai'' 170 

Daily  News 201' 

Rooks  of  'J'i'avel 2o-J 

i'oem t;-^ 

W'lntir.  —  DistrilmtioH  (if  S.iib  I'lanU  and  Animals  .      .      .      .  1->1 

Daily  Xrws      ....            202 

i'.odks  of  'i'l-avd 2ii2 

poem 0> 

Sjiriwj.  —  Disfribul  inn  III'  Rac-^  and  (invcrnmrnt-^    ....  ll)-! 

Daily  Ni'ws L'U2 

llook-^  of  'J'l-avi'l L'(i-_> 

I'oi-'m       ....            06 


206  THE   CHILI)  AND   NATURE. 

GRADE  VIII.  Page 

Autumn.  —  Keview,  Grade  VII. 

Distribution  of  Religions,  Occupations  and  Commerce    .  194 

Daily  News 202 

Books  of  Travel 202 

Poem G8 

Winter.  —  The  United  States,  and  Tupils'  Own  State    .     .      .  202 

Daily  News 202 

Books  of  Ti'av<-1 202 

I'oem OS 

Spring.  —  r\Iost  Important  Ten  Countries 202 

Review  Relief,  Pi-odiicts,  Commerce  and  Countries  of  the 

Globe loT 

Daily  News 202 

I!ooks  of  Ti-avcl 2o2 

I'oem 08 


TEACHERS'     LIBRARY    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

IIIK    UKsr    SIX     UOOKS    (JIVIXCi     A    (;K.\F.1:A1.    \IV\\   of    (iKOCItAI'IIV 

1.  Ivirth  aiul  ^lan.  —  (ixijot. 

2.  Com})arative  Geogi'aphy.  —  1!ill<  r. 
;5.   The  IvAYih.—Ileclii^. 

4.  J'hysical  (ieography  of  the  Sea.  —  Mauri/. 

5.  j'hysical,  Ilistoi'ical,  etc..  (Geography. — .lolniston. 
(5.    Intellectual  Devclojimcnt  of  Euro}ie.  —  ])rttp/r. 

wouKs  <)\  :\ii'.rii()i). 

Tliysiography.  —  Jlu.rl<  ij. 

The  'i'caching  of  (;eogra]ihy.  —  (!<;ilnr. 

Talk's  on  Teaching. — l\Uri(l(ji'.. 

First  r)Ook  of  Geology. — S/intcr. 

How  to  Teach  (ieography.  —  Cdrrcr. 

.Methods  of  Teaching  fieograi»hy.  —  Crnd-fr. 

Hand-book  of  the  \\\\v\\\. -— ILiplin.^. 


LITERATURE   OF   (iEOGRAPllY. 


207 


CONTINENTAL    R K 1. 1  K 1'    AND    DIIAIN  A(iK. 

Kartli  and  Man.  —  Gia/ot. 

Tli(!  l-:artli.  —  Reclu^. 

Pliysical  Ceograpliy.  —  Guijnt. 

Class-hook  of  Pliysical  (Jeograpliy.  —  Hughes. 

(icography  of  Kivcr  Systems. —  Lairyoii. 

KltMnentai'y  Less(.)ns  in  I'liysical  Geography.  —  (iei/ae, 

riiysieal  Geogi'aphy.  —  Ilcrsc/iel. 

riiysieal  Geography.  —  Suinerrillc. 

.M  A  T 1 1  K  .M  Vr  lC-\  L    C,  I.OG  1!  A  I'll  Y. 

riiysieal.  Historical,  etc.,  (ieography. — Joimston. 

Physiography.  —  Ifiixlfi/. 

Ilanil-l)0(tk  of  the  Terresfi'lal  Glol)0.  —  7-7/;. 

Matheinatieal  Geography.  — JctcLsan. 

Astrcdioiny  (Pi'iiiier).  —  Locl//cr. 

(ieograpliy  (Primer).  —  Groct. 

WINDS,    OCKAN-CUUKENTS    AND    KAINIAI.I.. 

Earth  and  Man.  —  G'uijnl. 

Physical  (ieograjiliy  of  tli(>  S(\a. — Mauf/. 

Tli(!  Atniosphei'e.  —  Fldmmurinii. 

l^lemeiitary  L(;ssons  in  I'hysieal  Geograjihy.  —  GciLle. 

The  Oceans.  —  Rcchis. 

(ieograpliy  of  the  Oceans. —  ll7///(/wy. 

Physical  (ieograpliy.  —  (I'ni/ut. 


Physical,  Historical,  etc.,  (ieograpliy. — Johnsfdu. 
('lass-l)ook  of  Physical  (ieograpliy.  —  IIinjliis. 
Ilainlhuch  der  KliniatoloLiie.  ^ //a///i. 


Th(!  Earth.  — 7?cr//(s. 

Physical  (ieogra])hy.  — Smncn-iUi'. 

Kormalioii  of  N'eiivtable  Mould.  —  Ihir/riu. 


208  THE   CRILB  AND  NATUllE. 

PRODUCTS. 

Manual  of  Commerce.  —  Browne. 

First  Book  of  Knowledge.  —  Guthrie. 

Vegetation  der  Erde.  —  Grisehaclt. 

Natural  Ilesources  of  the  United  States.  —  Patteii. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals.  —  Wallace. 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Pliysical  Geography.  —  Gcikie. 

Conmrercial  Products  of  the  Sea.  —  Slmv.ionds. 

Geography  of  the  Oceans  (tables  of  commerce).  —  Williaim 


The  Natural  History  of  ]\Ian.  —  Pritcliard. 

Peo])]es  of  the  World. — Bron-n. 

l*liysical  Geography  (maps).  —  Guyot. 

Earth  and  jMan.  —  Guijot. 

Ten  Great  Religions.  —  Clarke. 

The  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe.  —  Draper. 

HISTORY    Ol     ClXXiKArilV. 

Die  Geschichto  der  Erdkunde.  —  Hitter. 

Pliysical,  Historical,  etc.,  Geograpliy. — Joh)ustu)i. 

Essay  on  Humboldt.  —  Acjassiz, 

Cosmos  (Otte's  Translation),  Vol.  TI.  —  Ilnmhuhlt. 

Pemisylvania  School  Journal  (.January,  1S8S).  — Ihnlirle. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Life  of  Ritter.  —  Gage. 

Geographical  Studies.  —  Bitter. 

'J1ie  History  of  a  Mountain.  —  ntcfu.-i. 

The  Eartli  as  IModitied  by  Himiau  Action.  —  Marsh. 

Physical  Geography.  —  Ilonsluii. 

Town  f  ieologv.  —  Kini/sii  //. 

EliiUHMits  of   Geology  (I'arts  I.  and  ]].).— Le  Conte. 

Geological  Story  Brielly  Told  i  Parts  L  and  II.).  —  Dana. 


LlTEUAlUnE    UF  GEoaiiAI'IIY 


■JUU 


Oeoi^raphy  of  Coast-liix's.  —  Luu-son. 

Tho  Ocean  A\'(jrM.  —  Fn/uiu: 

'I'lie  Forms  of  Water.  —  'J'l/nditil 

Ksseiilials  of  fieograpliv  (iiroductioii  map-).  —  Fi<l"  r. 

riiysieal  Geograjiliy  (Primer;.  —  <ii'il.:i' . 

The  I)a\vii  of  IIi>tory.  —  l\<'ir^i. 

Ili.-tory  of  Civili/atidu  in  IJi^laml.  —  /iiic/./<-. 

D.'cisive  IJattl's  of  the  World.  —  Cnasij. 

In  compiliii;;  tlie  above  list,  the  iiceils  of  t-acliers  as  well  as  of 
cliiKlreii  liave  Ijeeii  lo'pt  constantly  in  vi.'W.  'J"he  aim  has  ]n'i-n 
to  select  from  the  ma-s  of  gi'')L;rapliieal  literal iii'e  a  small  hut  cwm- 
prejiensive  /rrv'/.///// /////v//'y.  Xo  hook  ha-  ini-n  i-crniiim-'mliMl  ihat 
lias  not  hi-en  carefully  stmlied  ami  (•om[ian'(l  with  oih'  r>  of  its 
kind.  It  is  in  no  s>'n-e  a  ciini[ileie  lihraiy  on  the  snhj'Ti.  l.m  will 
donhtlt'ss  prove  a  In-lpfnl  onr. 

Teachers  desirini;'  infuriuai  inn  In  regard  to  (^^'inan  autlmrs 
shnuld  C'ln.-nlt  Hall's  ••  liiMin^-rajiiiy  ot'  IMni'atio'.i."  .-.r.  \\\ii.: 
also  the  sm-ies  of  ar!irl.>s  on  "The  IJec-nt  Di'velopm-Mit  nt'  C-o- 
gra[ihical  Teachinn'  in  KurMpt'."'  hy  Clooili-dn.  in  ih"  '■  I'-ouiar 
Educator"  (r.(K-ton).  l-^-^n-s.  \t  -hould  not  lie  nvi'lowk-d  thai 
encyelopa'dias  contain  many  valnahle  e-sa'.s  on  liie  vai  ii -u-  topics 
in  geo-raphy. 


SUPPLEMENTARY     READERS     FOR     CHILDREN. 

Ti  1 1 K 1 )--- 1  s'  I ■:. \  1  )  1  •:  1  n:    ( ■.  k . \  1 ) I ■: ^s . 

Seven  Little  Si>ters.  —  .  1 /,'/;v //v. 

The  S,wen  Little  Sisters  j.mvr  tli-ir  Si-f.Th.H.d.  -      .!-//>  "v. 

The  Ten  I'.oys  who  livd  etc.  —  ,1  „,!,;  '/■>■. 

Chihlreuof  All  Xations.  —  .1  »o/,. 

Little  Folks  of  Oth^r  Lands.  _r,7e/,.';v  ,f..I  U nn^.'.r.  .,. 

Little  Lncy-s  Womhrrul  (ilohe.  —  }',;„-/,. 

S.'u  and  .Skv.  —  Fhtrl-hUm. 


210  THE   CHILD   AND   NATURE. 

Evenings  at  Home.  — Barbauld. 

Water  and  Land.  — Ahbott. 

IMadani  IIow  and  Lady  ^^'lly.  —  Kingsley. 

Aunt  IMartha's  Corner  Cupboard.  —  Kirhy. 

World  at  the  Fireside.  —  Kirhy. 

Natural  History  Readers. —  Wood. 

First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge.  —  Tennpy, 

AVinners  in  Life's  Race.  —  Buckley . 

Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur.  — Miller. 

Life  and  Her  Children.  — Buckley. 

The  Fairy-Land  of  Science.  —  Buckley. 

Homes  without  Hands. —  Wood. 

Georgie's  Menagerie. 

My  Featliered  Friends.  —  Wood. 

Natural  History  Series.  —  Jolionnot. 

Children's  Fairy  Geography.  —  Winslow. 

Peeps  Abroad. 

Nimrod  in  the  North.  - —  ScJuratka. 

Hans  Brinker.  —  Dodye. 

Cruise  in  Chinese  A\'aters.  • —  lAndley. 

Zigzag  Journeys.  —  BiiUenrorth. 

Young  Folks  Abroad.  —  McCahe. 

Young  Folks  in  Africa.  —  McCabe. 

Family  Flights.  —  Hole. 

Our  Roys  in  India. —  French. 

Our  Boys  in  China.  —  French. 

Little  I'eople  of  Asia.  —  Miller. 

The  Bodleys  Abroad.  —  Scndder. 

Water  Babies  (abridged  edition).  — Kinysley. 

Boy  Travellers  in  tlie  Far  Ivist.  ■ —  h'liox. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


GEOGRAPHIES,  GLOBES,  AND  MAPS. 

Footprints    of   Travel ;     or,   Joumey/ngs  in  Many  Lands. 

ByMATi-KiN  ^r.  I'.ALi.or,  aiiilior  "f  /'"•■  11''.-/,  /''";  ?:"■</,  Jhir  X,.rlh, 
Cnilir  tlw  Siiiiilii  ni  '',-,, .-.s,  ami  (HIht  IxHiks  of  Iravcl.  l-_'iiiii.  ;;7U  pauo. 
Illnstratcil.  Cl.itli:  Mailing  price,  -  1. in;  lor  iiii  r.Mluci  ion,  >  l.no.  i;..anl.-: 
Mailing  prii'O,  .so  ceuis;  I'or  iutri)iliictiun,  T(J  cnils. 

rpiirs  work  is  jircsciitiMl  as  a  siqiiik'nirnlai-y  rfailiii--li(Mik  in  ri  nl 
gtoijrdjilii/.  It  aims  to  furnish  v<'a(rni;_;-inatli'r  ^\lli('ll  shall 
i)ilrrr.<t  and  iii.^'IrNrf  llio  pupils,  ami  at  iin'  sasnc  tiiiu'  liclp  ihiMu 
iiiaslcr  an  imimrlaut  liiaiich  of  scliool  shul\'.  li  i-;  \  aluahlc  ahn  foi- 
thti  ]iL;lit  it  tlirf)\\s  on  hi^ioi-y,  ami  as  a  inoans  of  -cnd'al  (  ult  urc 

TliouL;'h  this  ho<i]c  is  so  (•(unpi-i'lifMisive,  still  llic  aulluir  ^\  riles 
t)f  iio  ishiuds,  contincnis,  or  seas,  no  roniarkahle  nidiuinu'nts  of 
infoi'esting  localities,  ^\hi(•h  he  ha-<  not  ]H'rsonally  ^i-ilell. 

Edward  Smith,  Snjif.  e/' ,S'r/e<eA^\  I  awakcninir  interest  in -e<iui-ap!i>- ami 
Siir"<'ii-<i,  y.}'.:    It,  seems  to  in(>  to   a  love  for  reading.     (../e/(.  LTi,  isso.) 
be  the  best  book  e^■er  pnblisheil  fori 

The  Fitz  Globe. 

Twelve-inch  Cldhe.     l^tr  intnulnctioii,  ^'Ja.OO. 

rPIIIS  l;1o1)C!  clearly  illust  rafe.s  all  tiie  ])henonioiia  jirndtieod  hv 
the  siin"s  relal  ions  to  the  cartli.  and  is  the  lir-!  ^lolie  \u  illu  — 
trafc  the  .sun's  daily  course,  or  indicate  the  interval  of  twilight, 
or  repi-eseni  oii(»'s  ]H)ri/(ni,  without  falsifyiuL;'  the  existing  !'elati(m 
of  the  earth's  axis  to  its  orhit . 

'J'lio  ajiparatus  is  eipially  iii^'iuiious  ;ind  simple,  ;iml  the  worjs- 
manship  is  of  th"  Lest.      It  is  strong-,  and  cannot  -et  out  of  order. 

The  Handhook  which  accouipaiiies  tlic  (llohe  contains  full  direc- 
tions for  its  use. 

l'2inn.  VJO  paL;es.  .Mailing  pi-ice,  CO  cents.  .1  free  cu^'ij  is  S'  iil  /rif:, 
each  Ulvbe. 


142  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Joslin  Terrestrial,  Celestial,  &  Slated  Globes. 

Six-Inch  Globe  (Terrestrial  or  Celestial),  Semi-Frame,  retail  ....  $5.00 
Nine-Inch  Globe  (Terrestrial  or  Celestial),  Semi-Frame,  retail  .  .  .  .  12.00 
Twelve-Inch  Globe  (Terrestrial  or  Celestial),  Semi-Frame,  retail  .     .     .      17.00 

Mounted  in  Full  Wood  Frames,  iuid  suited  to  the  working  of  problems, 
$;4.(K)  more  on  eacli  Globe.    Slated  Globes  of  each  style,  15  per  cent  less. 
No  charge  for  packing.    Liberal  discount  to  the  trade,  and  to  schools, 

Johnston 's  Wall  Maps. 

Engraved  by  W.  &  A.  K.  Johnston,  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  The  whole 
series  is  of  uniform  and  convenient  size;  namely,  oOx  42  inclies.  Any 
map  sold  separately.  If  returned  free  of  expense,  a  set  will  be  sent  for 
examination.  Retail  price,  .So.50  each  :  for  introduction,  So.OO.  Mounted 
separately  on  spring  rollers,  .^4.00,  or  in  veneer  case,  •'i?4.,50.  A  set  of 
seven  maps  on  spring  rollers,  in  Kuberg  patent  oak  case,  50  cents  extra 
per  map  for  mounting,  and  $9.00  for  the  case.    I'sual  discounts. 

A  DOPTED  by  nearly  every  Scliool  Board  in  (Jreat  Britain,  and 
by  over  five  thousand  schools  in  the  United  States. 

They  are  the  most  complete,  handsome,  and  substantial  school 
maps  ever  publislied. 

They  can  be  used  in  connection  with  any  text-book  on  geography. 

Names  are  all  engraved  in  plain  Kcnnau  letters.    Xo  key  required. 

They  are  engraved  on  copper-plates,  and  therefore  lines  and  let- 
ters are  shown  with  great  beauty  and  distinctness.  They  have 
heavy  cloth  backs,  are  mounted  on  rollers,  and  arc  varnished;  the 
best  nuiterial  only  Iteing  used. 

Political  Geography. — *  Eastern  and  Western  Ilemisplicres  (one  Map). 
*  World,  Men^ator's  i'rojectioii.  Eastern  lleinispiiere.  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. *  Europe.  England.  Scotland.  Ireland.  ISritish  Isles.  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  etc.  *UMiteil  States.  South  AuKirica.  France.  Sj)ain  and 
Portugal.  Italy.  Central  Europe.  Orkney  and  Shetland.  *Asia.  India. 
*Africa.  Cape  Colony.  *Ain('rica.  North  America.  Australia.  New  Zea- 
land (in  Counties).     I'.icific  Ocean. 

Classical  and  Scriptural  Geography.  — Ca-sar  do  I'ello  Gallico.  Orbis 
Veterihus  Notus.  Italia,  Anti(|ua.  (jra'cia  Antiqua.  Asi.a  Minor.  Orbis 
Romaiuis.  Travels  of  St.  Paul.  Outlini'  Map  of  Couiurii'S  bordering  ou 
Mediterrane.'tn.     Canaan  and  I'alest inc.     ISible  Cotintries. 

Physical  Geography.— World,  in  Hemispheres.  Europe.  Asia.  Africa. 
America.     [Tliose  starred  may  be  had  as  Outline  Maps.] 


Outline  Maps. 


Prepared  for  purposes  of  Instruction  and  Examinntinn.  Now  ready: 
(irc^ece,  Creeee  and  ital>-,  Europe,  United  Slates.  Each,  about  6x12 
inches.    Retail  Price,  o  cents. 


144  GEOGRAPHY. 

Our  World  Reader,  No.   7. 

First  Le>.soiis  in  Geo;,'rapliy,  beiiis;  a  revised  edition  of  Our  World,  No.  1 
^Vitll  new  Maps  and  Illustrations.  By  Mary  L.  Hall.  ISmo.  Cloth, 
viii  +  liOS  pages.    JIailing  Trice,  GO  cents;  for  Introduction,  50  cents. 

"]V"0  book  relating  to  this  interesting  brancli  of  study  has  been 
more  widely  used,  or  read  ^vith  more  absorbing  interest  by 
children,  than  Our  World,  Xo.  1,  -which  for  many  years  has  been  a 
standard  text-book,  or  supplementary  reader,  in  public  and  private 
schools. 

Tlie  book,  with  some  necessary  changes,  and  with  important 
additions,  is  now  issued  as  a  supplementary  reader  for  primary 
schools. 

The  charm  of  the  book  is  not  only  its  simplicity  of  style  and 
vividness  of  description,  but  also  its  seizing  upon  broad  and  gen- 
eral characteristics  in  its  treatment  of  the  subject.  Confusing  de- 
tails are  therefore  avoided,  the  design  being,  not  so  much  to  impart 
a  knowledge  of  mere  facts  as  to  present,  in  clearest  outline,  pictures 
of  the  earth  as  "  the  home  of  man." 

In  brief,  Our  World  Reader,  No.  1,  is 

1.  A  book  of  proved  attractiveness  for  young  readers. 

2.  A  book  that  helps  the  regular  school  work. 

3.  A  book  that  imparts  the  sort  of  information  about  our  worlt? 
which  every  intelligent  person  would  and  should  possess. 

4.  A  book  in  accord  with  the  most  approved  principles  of  educa- 
tion. 

.5.  A  book  full,  from  beginning  to  end,  of  the  germs  of  valuable 
ideas. 

G.  A  book  that  illustrates  a  sensible  method  of  teaching  geog- 
ra}>hy,  and  tliat  will  be  welcomed  by  many  as  the  best  primary 
text-book  on  tlie  subject. 

"7. G. Curtis, Si'pf. of  Piihlir  SfJiools, '  ingnow  edition  into  the  schools  nnder 


W'iu'ina,  }[inn.:  AVo  have  used  the 
old  edition  in  the  schools  of  this  city 
as  a  supplenientarj'  reading-hook  for 
some  time,  and  I  am  sure  thai  in  its 
new  and  attractive  form  it  will  be 
Still  more  hiu'hly  valued  for  that  pur- 
pose tlian  before.  I  shall  take  j^reat 
pleasure  iu  introducing  this  charm- 


my  suiier\ision.     (Ort.  i,  ISS;.'.) 

E.  C.  Sabin,  Supt.  of  Public  SrhofJi;, 
Portlaud,  Orcjun:  It  is  a  beautiful 
and  most  desirable  book.  Miss  Hall's 
first  book  did  inralculable  good  to 
the  proper  mctJiod  of  teachirig  geog- 
raphy, and  this  form  will  extend  ita 
good!  nil  uenca.    (Oc<.  23, 18«9.) 


CLASSICS    FOR    CHILDREN. 


Choice  Literature;   Judicious  Notes:    Large  Type;  Firm  Bindings 
Low  Prices. 


Hans  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales. 

*  First  Series:  Supplementary  to  the  Third  Reader. 

*  Si'.COND  Series:  Supplementary  to  the  Fourth  Reader. 
*^sop's  Fables,  with  selections  from  Krilof  and  La  Fontaine. 
*Kingsley's  Water-Babies  :  A  story  for  a  Land-Baby. 
*Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden  River:  A  Legend  of  Stiria. 
*The  Swiss  Family  Robinson.     Abridged. 

Robinson  Crusoe.     Concluding  with  his  departure  from  the  island. 
*Kingsley's  Greek  Heroes. 

Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare.     "  Meas.  for  Meas."  omitted. 

Martineau's  Peasant  and  Prince. 

Eunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Scott's  Marmion  ;   Lady  of  the  Lake ;   Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel. 

Lamb's  Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

Tom  Brown  at  Rugby. 

Church's  Stories  of  the  Old  World. 

Scott's  Quentin  Durward.     Slightly  abridged. 

Irving's  Sketch  Book.     Six  Selections,  including  "  I\.ip  Van  Winkle." 

Irving's  Alhambra. 

Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice. 

Scott's  Old  Mortality;  Ivanhoe;  Talisman;  Rob  Roy;  Guy  Man- 
nering ;  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,     l^ach  complete. 

Johnson's  Rasselas  :   Prince  of  Abyssinia. 

Gulliver's  Travels.     The  Voyages  to  I.illiput  and  Brobdingnag. 
'Plutarch's  Lives.     From  Clough's  Translation. 

Irving-Fiske's  Washington  and  His  Country. 

Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
'Franklin  :  His  Life  by  Himself. 

Selections  from  Ruskin. 

Heroic  Ballads. 
'Hale's  Arabian  Nights. 

Grote  and  Segur's  Two  Great  Retreats. 


Starred  hoohs  are  illustrated. 


CINN   &   COMPANY,    Publishers, 

ISosTON,  Ni-.w  York,  and  Chicago. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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